Pramāṇa · Search · About · API

The Indian Buddhist Iconography, Mainly Based on the Sadhanamala and Other Cognate Tantric Texts of Rituals c9: Introduction

The Indian Buddhist Iconography, Mainly Based on the Sādhanamālā and Other Cognate Tāntric Texts of Rituals c9

Language
English

Contents

Introduction

c9.1

1. Materials for the study of Buddhist Iconography.

c9.2

All the three great religious systems of India, Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism developed well-filled pantheons, and it is not always easy to decide to which of these three systems a particular image should be assigned. The importance of the study of iconography, which primarily concerns itself with the proper recognition of images thus becomes apparent.

c9.3

The difficulties of the investigator are increased by the fact that a free and frequent interchange of deities took place among the three religious systems. Such Hindu deities as Pārvatī, Indra, Lakṣmī, Sarasvatī are to be found among the Jainas. The Hindus, on the other hand, have borrowed goddesses like Mahācīnātārā, Jāngulī, Vajrayoginī from the Buddhist pantheon and incorporated them into their own under the names of Tārā, Manasā and Chinnamastā respectively. Thus there is evidence that a free interchange of deities actually took place at the very outset of Buddhism and Jainism as in the more promiscuous Tāntric age. The Jainas and the Buddhists alike borrowed Hindu gods in their earlier stages, but in the Tāntric age Buddhist gods were commonly exploited.

c9.4

The problem of correct identification of images, therefore, presents a real difficulty which great scholars have more than once attempted to solve. Scholars of all countries, notably Waddell, Grunwedel, Foucher, Burgess, Getty, Coomaraswamy, Bhattasali, Rakhaldas Banerji and many others, have written useful and authoritative works, and collected together a considerable amount of information on Buddhist iconography. It is unfortunate, however, that the pantheon of the Indian Vajrayānists who were mainly responsible in building it up has so far been more or less neglected Getty and Deniker's 'Gods of Northern Buddhism', although a masterpiece, deals only with Tibetan, Chinese and Japanese gods but the purely Indian gods seem to have attracted little notice from them. It was Professor Foucher who by the publication of his 'Etudes sur l' Iconographie Bouddhique de L' Inde' in two parts published as early as 1900 and 1905, first drew the attention of scholars to this rich field of research. His curiosity was roused by a study of the miniatures appearing on such Buddhist manuscripts as the Prajñāpāramitā, and then he made a systematic attempt to identify the sculptures. For the purpose of recognising images he hunted out a number of Sādhanas from the manuscripts of Sādhanamālā, and he was surprised to find that the images tallied most remarkably with the descriptions given in the unpublished text of the Tāntric manuscript. Again, the images and sculptures supplied interesting details such as were not available in the Sādhana. Thus the Sādhana and the image mutually enlightened each other. Professor Foucher’s second volume embodies a critical, although partial, study of the Sādhanamālā and it was this book that first emphasized the necessity of referring to a Sādhana in order to make or justify any single identification of a Buddhist image. When the present author was studying at the feet of the illustrious savant, Professor Foucher, at the Indian Museum, Calcutta, he was advised to edit and study the different recensions of the Sādhanamālā before proceeding with the delicate art of identification of Buddhist deities.

c9.5

The Sādhanamālā is thus the most valuable and important aid to Buddhist iconography not only because it records the latest advances in psychic research of the Vajrayāna Buddhists, but also because it was a product of a period when Buddhism was about to be destroyed in Bengal due to Mussalman invasion. This standard work on Buddhist iconography has been published in two volumes as Nos. 26 and 41 of the Gaekwad’s Oriental Series with an elaborate introduction dealing with the text and the various problems raised therein.

c9.6

The edition of the Sādhanamālā comprises 312 Sādhanas and contains descriptions of numerous Buddhist deities. All new Sādhanas found in a different collection called the Sādhanasamuccaya have been carefully incorporated in their appropriate places in the present edition, which may very well represent a Vade Mecum of the Sādhana literature of the Buddhists. The Sādhanamālā not only gives valuable details regarding the deities, but a study of this work reveals much historical and cultural information on the Tāntric period, the Tāntric philosophy, and its psychic exercises, and on authors, Siddhas, Mantras, Maṇḍalas, and magic as prevalent among the Buddhists. The special form of Buddhism which developed in the Tāntric period is called the Vajrayāna, and the Sādhanamālā throws a great deal of light on this obscure path of Buddhism which was current in India from the 7th to the 13th century A.D.

c9.7

The Sādhanamālā does not however exhaust the material for the study of Indian Buddhist Iconography. One of the Sādhanamālā Mss. is dated in the Newari Era 285 corresponding to A.D. 1165, and therefore, this work is not expected to record all the developments that took place after 1165 A. D. Many of the later developments are found incorporated in the work entitled the Dharmakoṣasaṅgraha of Amṛtānanda who was the Residency Pandit when B. Hodgson was the Resident of Nepal. A manuscript of this work is preserved in the Durbar Library of Nepal, and there is also a copy of the original, preserved in the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal in the Government Collection. Amṛtānanda’s work is not published.

c9.8

Besides Amṛtānanda’s work there are others more ancient and capable of supplying much iconographic material. One such work is the Niṣpannayogāvalī of Mahāpaṇḍita Abhayākara Gupta of the Vikramaśīla monastery who flourished during the reign of the Pala King Rāmapāla (A.D. 1084-1130). This valuable work is now published in the Gaekwad’s Oriental Series as No. 109 with an elaborate introduction and a full summary of its contents

c9.9

The Niṣpannayogavali is a work on Maṇḍalas and is remarkable for its richness of information and brevity. It contains in all 26 Maṇḍalas in twenty-six chapters, some short, some long. All these Maṇḍalas describe innumerable deities of the Tantra cult. A large number of these descriptions is absolutely original, highly interesting and informative. Many of the names and forms which were altogether lost, are published here for the first time. Many of the deities described accurately in the work are not to be found anywhere in printed literature. The Niṣpannayogāvalī thus presents a unique, original, useful and most valuable information which constitutes our most authentic material for the study of the images and deities belonging to the Buddhist pantheon. Niṣpannayogāvalī outbeats Sādhanamālā since the material presented here is more varied, more extensive and more prolific.

c9.10

What service this Niṣpannayogāvalī can render to Buddhism may be illustrated by a reference to the several hundreds of images of Buddhist deities discovered in the Forbidden City of Peiping in Manchuria. In July 1926 Stael Holstein the Russian archæologist received permission to visit a number of Lama temples situated in Peiping which seem to have been neglected for a long time. In the upper storey of one of these temples he found a collection of bronze statuettes constituting a Lamaist Pantheon which had consisted originally of 787 figures. These figures along with a series of photographs from three manuscripts written in Chinese were studied by the famous American Professor Walter Eugene Clark, Wales Professor of Sanskrit in the Harvard University, and he published this rich material in two sumptuous volumes, entitled, the Two Lamaistic Pantheons in the Harvard Yenching Institute Monograph Series in the year 1937. The first volume contains an introduction, bibliography and indexes of deities in Sanskrit, Tibetan and Chinese. The second volume contains illustrations of innumerable deities.

c9.11

These illustrations are of the utmost importance for the study of the Buddhist pantheon not only of China but also of India, Nepal and Tibet. The original images bear inscriptions in Chinese and sometimes in Tibetan and other languages, and the learned editor took great pains in restoring their original Sanskrit names. A large number of these names derived from Chinese sources is found in the Niṣpannayogāvalī with their full iconographic descriptions. Thus the Niṣpannayogāvalī provides the much needed descriptive texts which served as a basis for the artists to prepare the statuettes found in China. Since this book Niṣpannayogāvalī gives full iconographic descriptions of most of these deities it is not unreasonable to suppose that the Niṣpannayogāvalī formed at least one of the originals from which the artists obtained the correct idea of the form of the numerous deities represented in the statuettes. Otherwise it is difficult to conceive how form can be given to such obscure deities as the Sixteen Boddhisattvas, the Twelve Pāramitās, the Twelve Bhūmis, the Four Pratisamvits, etc. which are described accurately in the Mañjuvajra Maṇḍala of the Niṣpannayogāvalī. It is simply impossible to prepare images of these deities without the help of descriptions as given by Abhayākaragupta. The volume of information given in the Niṣpannayogāvalī of Abhayākaragupta is so great that an independent book is required to deal with them exhaustively.

c9.12

Besides the above mentioned Niṣpannayogāvalī, there are numerous Tāntric texts which furnish considerable material for the study of Buddhist iconography of the Tāntric period with which this work primarily concerns itself. Some of the more important materials can be found in the original Tantra works such as the Heruka and the Hevajra Tantras, Caṇḍamahāroṣaṇa Tantra, Vajravārāhī Tantra, Kriyāsamuccaya, Vajrāvalī nāma Maṇḍalopāyikā, Yoginījāla Tantra Abhidhānottra Tantra and many others The list of such original Tantras furnishing valuable information on Buddhist deities can by no means be exhausted. The works above mentioned are all unpublished, and their handwritten copies can be found in the manuscript libraries such as the Durbar Library, Nepal; Asiatic Society’s Library, Bengal; University Library, Cambridge; Musee Guimet, Paris; and the Russian Academy of Sciences in Leningrad. Numerous such manuscripts are also to be found in the hundreds of Buddhist monasteries of Nepal at Kathmandu, Pattan and Bhatgaon. Thus there is still an inexhaustive field for research and original work in Buddhist iconography alone It is a pity that these valuable and original source books of Buddhism should remain unpublished in this country, and sooner attention is drawn to this field of work, the better it will be for the history of our cultural past. It is a matter of deep regret that even to-day there are lakhs of handwritten manuscripts in India in private houses, and no effort is being made to collect or preserve them. Thus these valuable source books of Indian history and culture are allowed to perish in India. Sanskrit being the most important member of the Indo-European family of languages is world property to-day, and it is the duty of every scholar in the world to see that this precious heritage is not allowed to be dissipated in an irresponsible manner.

c9.13

There is another class of manuscripts which bears miniatures and paintings of Buddhist gods and goddesses. The different recensions of the Prajñāpāramitā and Pañcarakṣā bear miniature paintings on them. Illuminated manuscripts of the Kāraṇḍavyūha and Bodhicaryāvatāra are also not unknown. The Pañcarakṣā manuscripts are to be found almost in every Buddhist house in Nepal, they bear different sets of miniatures, and are calculated to serve many household purposes. Holy books are illuminated with miniatures in order that they may be treated with respect by others, and in order that their sanctity may be increased and preserved.

c9.14

By far the most important material for the study of Buddhist iconography is represented by sculptures, bronzes, metal images and miniatures. The earlier phases of Buddhism are more or less free from the representations of gods and goddesses. But scenes from Buddha's life, and Jātaka stories were given preference in the earlier Buddhism. Such scenes and stories are found represented in stone at Sanchi, Bharhut, Amaravati and also in the Gandhara school. According to Professor Foucher the first image of the Buddha was fashioned in the Gandhara school of art.(¹) Sculptures of Bodhisattvas and Hindu gods are not rare in this school. The sculpture remains at Amaravati are contemporaneous with those of the Gandhara school. The Mathura school followed closely and then came the sculptures of Sarnath, Magadha, Bengal, Orissa, Java and Nepal in the Tāntric age. The paintings at Ajaṇṭā begin from the first century A.D. and the sculptures of Ellora and many other places, Buddhist cave temples of Southern and Northern India show the influence of immature Tantra on them. Sculptures produced in the earlier schools have received ample attention of great scholars, but images belonging to the Tāntric and post-Tāntric periods and profoundly influenced by the Tantras have not been so fortunate. The excavations at Sarnath, Nālandā, Kurkihar have brought to light a large number of images of Buddhist gods and goddesses belonging to the Tantra school, and it may be reasonably expected that the old strongholds of Tāntric learning such as Odanta-

c9.15

(1) Foucher : Beginnings of Buddhist Art and other essays, p. 127.

c9.16

puri, Vikramaśīla, Nālandā, Sarnath and Jagaddala monasteries will prove no less fruitful in this respect. The museums of Eastern India such as Sarnath, Patna, Calcutta, Dacca, Rajshahi, Mayurbhanj, Khiching and few others contain numerous metal images and sculptures belonging to the Tāntric cult. That Bengal in the pre-Muhammadan period was practically Buddhist is made obvious by the fact that the worship of Dharma and Mañjughoṣa still prevails there, and that numerous Buddhist sculptures are being constantly discovered throughout the length and breadth of the province. It is needless to add that the Buddhist images discovered in Bengal, Bihar and Assam are mostly the product of the Tāntric school of the Buddhists.

c9.17

The wealth of sculptural and bronze remains in Nepal has not yet received the attention it deserved. Nepal is the only country which abounds in rich material for the study of Buddhist iconography, and in Nepal Buddhism can be studied as a living religion. Some of the Buddhist monasteries at Pattan are so rich in images that they can be said to constitute small museums by themselves. The stūpa of Bodhnāth alone contains no less than a hundred and eight sculptures executed in a neat manner. Occasional images of Guru Padmasambhava in the peculiar Tibetan technique and costume bespeak the Tibetan character of the temple. Forty-seven images in this famous temple are represented in Yab-yum and the rest are single. About ten of the single images depict the Siddhas of Tibet such as Mila-ras-pa, Mar-pa, Padmasambhava, Naro-pa and others. Although Tibetan in character the temple contains nevertheless some of the purely Indian gods of the Vajrayāna pantheon, such as Ṣaḍakṣarī Lokeśvara, Vāk, Heruka, Yamāntaka and a few others. An old Tibetan tradition declares that in the matter of art Bengal comes first, Nepal second while the Tibetan and Chinese are the worst.

c9.18

At Simbhu in Nepal one can witness the grandeur of an excellent Buddhist museum where the finest specimens of Buddhist sculptures are preserved round about the Stūpa itself and in the surroundings. At the Macchandar Vahal or the temple of Matsyendranātha the great Nātha Yogin, there can be found 108 different forms of Avalokiteśvara painted on a running panel in colour.¹ Images and forms of deities that are not available in India are to be found in plenty in the Buddhist monasteries in Nepal. Anywhere in Nepal round a central stūpa tiers of small chapels rising from the ground to the top are found to contain first class artistic specimens of Buddhist gods and goddesses. In monasteries which are run by courteous and learned Tāntric monks one can find quite a number of images, sculptures, bronzes, paintings and illuminated manuscripts. It is possible to have an idea of the enormous wealth of cultural remains in Nepal, when it is remembered that the number of monasteries at Kathmandu alone exceeds five hundred.

c9.19

¹ These 108 forms are illustrated in the Appendix at the end of this volume

c9.20

In Nepal, interesting material for the study of Buddhist iconography is obtained from an entirely unexpected quarter. There is a class of people called the Citrakāras or professional artists. They are so proficient in their art that they can produce an excellent drawing of any Buddhist deity in a few minutes. These artists seem to have a phenomenal memory with regard to the iconographic details such as the number of faces and hands, the pose, the symbols, the weapons and the parental Dhyāni Buddha. They prepare such drawings in the presence of the customer without ever referring to a book or painted specimen, although at home they keep albums full of drawings in black and white and paintings in colour all relating to Buddhist deities. The specimens obtained from a gifted Citrakāra named Vīrmān are reproduced in the body of the book in large numbers. All line drawings, barring the twenty-four Bodhisattvas, reproduced in this volume are from his drawings in black and white.

c9.21

The above is a short survey of materials of different kinds that are available to the student of Buddhist iconography. It may be noticed that the images, sculptures, bronzes, drawings, miniatures, and the gods and goddesses represented by these, together with the literature explaining them, all belong to the Tāntric mode of thought and culture. They are brought together under the comprehensive term of Vajrayāna or the "Adamantine Vehicle". It leads therefore to a consideration of that form of Budhhism which is well known as Vajrayāna.

2. Vajrayāna Mysticism

c9.s1.1

Both the Hindus and the Buddhists were alike prolific writers on the Tantras and the literature extant on them is wonderfully extensive. One of the reasons why the word Tantra cannot be defined is that the Tantra comprises an astounding number of subjects along with its own numerous sub-divisions. Whatever was best, whatever was ennobling and whatever was beautiful in India were all incorporated in the Tantra. Tāntric literature contributes a great deal to such sciences as astronomy, astrology, medicine, alchemy, chiromancy, horoscopy, divination, prognosis, Yoga and Haṭhayoga. The Tantra is an admixture of religion, philosophy, science, superstition, dogmas, psychic exercises and mysticism. In this wonderful literature is locked up much of the cultural history of India, and when this literature is intensively studied, it will reveal a great deal of India’s past history and culture, particularly for the period between the 7th century A. D. right upto the Muhammadan conquest. It may here be mentioned that the Tantras, inspite of all their faults, are peculiarly Indian and represent India’s contribution to world culture. A literature of this kind is not found in the history and civilization of any other country in the world.

c9.s1.2

To understand the rise of Vajrayāna it is necessary to go back to the original teachings of the Buddha. Lord Buddha prescribed two Yānas in the beginning, namely, the Srāvakayāna and the Pratyekabuddhayāna. The Srāvakas were to hear from a Buddha but they had to wait till the advent of another Buddha for their emancipation. In the meanwhile the Srāvakas could teach, but they could neither attain Nirvāṇa themselves nor help others to attain it. The Pratyekas were eminent men; they could attain Nirvāṇa by their own efforts, without the help of a Buddha but they could not impart Nirvāṇa to others.

c9.s1.3

Buddhism continued in this state till the rise of the Mahāyāna properly called, the Bodhisattvayāna. The Mahāyānists dismissed the previous Yānas with the contemptuous epithet of Hīnayāna. They claimed that they could not only attain Nirvāṇa, nay even Buddhahood, with their own unaided efforts, but could also help others to attain these ideals. The distinction between Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna is graphically described in the earliest work, the Mahāyānasūtrālaṅkāra, attributed to the famous Buddhist sage Asaṅga.

c9.s1.4

Thus there were three Yānas in Buddhism about 300 A. D. which may approximately be taken as the time of Asaṅga. But against these three Yānas there were four schools of philosophy in Buddhism, namely, the Sarvāstivāda (Sautrāntika), the Vāhyārthabhaṅga (Vaibhāṣika), the Vijñānavāda (Yogācāra), and the Śūnyavāda (Madhyamaka). How these four systems of philosophy were distributed amongst the three Yānas is one of the vital questions of Buddhism. The Tattvaratnāvalī of Advayavajra (12th century A. D.) answers this question in a praiseworthy manner. According to this authority "Three are the Yānas, Śrāvakayāna, Pratyekayāna and Mahāyāna. There are four theories; Vaibhāṣika, Sautrāntika, Yogācāra and Madhyamaka. Śrāvakayāna and Pratyekayāna are explained by the theories of the Vaibhāṣikas. Mahāyāna is of two kinds : Pāramitānaya and Mantranaya. Pāramitānaya is explained by the theories either of Sautrāntika, Yogācāra or Madhyamaka. Mantranaya is explained by the theories of Yogācāra and Madhyamaka only". 1

c9.s1.5

Thus Mantranaya commences with the most abstruse theories of Śūnyavāda and Vijñānavāda. Advayavajra in one place says,—"Mantranaya is very abstruse. It concerns men who seek emancipation by deep and solemn methods. It is also very extensive owing to the understanding of such theories as the four symbolic representations. Therefore, the author is not fit to explain it". 2 Advayavajra cites for his authority a statement which says that the Mantraśāstra transcends all other Śāstras, because though the Śāstras have the same common object there is no fear of ignorance here. The means are many and the end not difficult of attainment by men whose senses are sharpened to the highest degree. Advayavajra in his Sekanirṇaya accepts the Mahāsukha theory, dilates upon the various stages of the Mahāsukha which according to him is not possible of attainment without the Śakti the embodiment of Karuṇā. 3

c9.s1.6

It is hardly necessary now to state that the Buddhism of the Lord Buddha found entirely different expressions as time passed from century to century, so much so, that even if Buddha is reborn, he will not be able to recognize Vajrayāna or the Buddhist Tantra as his own handicraft. Though the Buddha was antagonistic to all sorts of sacrifices, sorcery, necromancy or magic, he nevertheless is credited by some later authorities with having given instructions on Mudrās, Maṇḍalas, Yoga and Tantra, so that prosperity in this world could be attained by his less advanced disciples who seemed to care more for this world than for the Nirvāṇa preached by him. 4 India in Buddha's time was such that any religion which dared forbid all kinds of magical practices, could hardly be popular. A clever organiser as the Buddha was, he did not fail to notice the importance of incorporating magical practices in his religion to make it popular from all points of view. The Tantras and Mantras were all there in the time of the Buddha, but unfortunately, we do not possess any connected account of them except a few works on the Dhāraṇīs in which the Chinese were interested in the beginning of the Christian era. These Dhāraṇīs are only unmeaning strings of words which are said to confer great merit when muttered repeatedly for a number of times. Then comes the worship of Buddha in the Prajñāpāramitā with all the paraphernalia of worship such as are found in the Tantras. Then follow the different recensions of the Prajñāpāramitā, its sūtra, hṛdayasūtra, its Dhāraṇī and Mantra the recitation of all of which confers the benefit of reading the whole of the Prajñāpāramitā scripture. This is a very old work and was translated into Chinese in the second century. A. D. The Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa appears to be a product of the same period and is full of deities, mudrās, maṇḍalas and Tāntric practices, which became systematized in the Guhyasamāja Tantra in circa 300 A. D.

c9.s1.7

¹ Adv. p. 14

c9.s1.8

² Adv. p. 21

c9.s1.9

³ Adv. p. 28

c9.s1.10

⁴ Tattvasaṅgraha of Śāntarakṣita "Taduktamantrayogādiniyamād Vidhivat Kṛtāt. Prajñārogyavibhutvādidṛṣṭadharmo-pi jāyote. Śloka 3487

c9.s1.11

The Buddhist Tantras belong undoubtedly to Mahāyāna although it is quite possible to infer the presence of magical practices amongst the followers of the early Buddhism.¹ The Tantras were a development of the Yogācāra which was inspired by the Śūnyavāda of the Madhyamakas. Vajrayāna marks a step in advance even of the Yogācāra thought.

c9.s1.12

¹ Bhattacharyya : Buddhist Esoterism, p. 24

c9.s1.13

The Mahāyāna in the opinion of the Vajrayānists is co-extensive with what they called Dharma which they considered as eternal and to which was given a more important place in later Buddhism, than was assigned to the Buddha himself. The Vajrayānists refer to Śūnya in all their writings, but this is not the Śūnya of the Madhyamakas about which neither existence nor non-existence nor a combination of the two nor a negation of the two can be predicated. To the Madhyamakas both the subject and the object are Śūnya in essence; there is no reality either of the mind or of the external world. Obviously, this is a position which was not agreeable to the Vajrayānists because to them a positive aspect in the Śūnya is absolutely necessary. The Yogācāra or the Vijñānavāda goes a little further and the view of Vijñānavāda as formulated by the school is that when emancipation is obtained it does not become Śūnya, but turn into eternal consciousness. Vajrayāna, on the other hand, is characterized as the ‘Path which leads to perfect enlightenment’ or what they call in Sanskrit ‘Anuttara Samyak Sambodhi’. Vajrayāna literally means the adamantine path or vehicle, but its technical meaning is the ‘Śūnya Vehicle’ where Śūnya is used in a special sense to represent Vajra. It is said,—

c9.s1.14

“Śūnyatā is designated as Vajra
because it is firm and sound, and
cannot be changed, cannot be pierced,
cannot be penetrated, cannot be burnt
and cannot be destroyed”. ¹

c9.s1.15

¹ Adv. p. 23

c9.s1.16

The Mahāyānists differ from the Hīnayānists who are keen on obtaining liberation for themselves by their own efforts. The Mahāyānists, on the other hand, do not care for their own salvation. They are more solicitous about the deliverance of their fellow creatures than about their own. Their compassion for the sufferings of others actuates them to renounce their comforts, merits and even their right to salvation. The ideal of a Mahāyānist finds expression in the Kāraṇḍavyūha where the ideal Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara is represented as refusing his well earned Nirvāṇa until all beings of the world were in possession of the Bodhi knowledge and obtained freedom from worldly miseries. ²

c9.s1.17

² Kāraṇḍavyūha, ed. Sāmāśrami, pp. 21-22

c9.s1.18

This then may be considered to be the goal of every Bodhisattva, which can be reached by following the tenets either of Śūnyavāda or of Vijñānavāda. The Madhyamaka theory postulated a transcendental state but the Yogācāra added the element of Vijñāna ‘consciousness’ to Śūnya. The Bodhi mind is a chain of Vijñāna which is changing every moment, the Vijñāna of the previous moment giving rise to the Vijñāna of the succeeding moment with the same memory the same conformations and same qualities, and this process goes on till Vijñāna attains liberation.

c9.s1.19

Now, this is the sort of emancipation to which the Vijñānavādins led their followers. In this Nirvāṇa, as is already pointed out, there are two elements, Śūnya and Vijñāna. The Vajrayāna which is a direct outcome of the Yogācāra school introduced a new element or the element of Mahāsukha ‘eternal bliss’ to their conception of liberation. The evolution of Buddhism became complete and found full expression in Vajrayāna.

c9.s1.20

Vajrayāna introduced many innovations of a revolutionary character. It introduced, for instance, the theory of the five Dhyāni Buddhas as embodiments of the five Skandhas or cosmic elements and formulated the theory of the Kulas or families of the five Dhyāni Buddhas from which deities emerge according to need. It introduced the worship of the Prajñā or Śakti in Buddhism for the first time, and a host of other things including a large number of gods and goddesses, their Sādhanas for the purpose of visualisation, Mantras, Tantras, Yantras, Mudrās, Maṇḍalas, mystic realizations and psychic exercises of the most subtle character.

c9.s1.21

It is not possible to trace the origin of Vajrayāna without referring to the Tibetan authorities and ancient Tāntric authors Tārānāth is reported to have said ¹ that Tāntrism existed from very early times and was transmitted in a secret manner from the time of Asaṅga down to the time of Dharmakīrti. Asaṅga who was a brother of Vasubandhu (280-360 A. D.) must have flourished circa 300 A. D. and Dharmakīrti who is not mentioned by the Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang but is referred to with great respect by I-Tsing very probably belonged to a period between 625-675 A. D. Thus it can be seen that during a long period of nearly three hundred years Tāntrism was handed down from Gurus to disciples in an occult manner, before its followers could be numerically strong enough to preach their secret doctrines in public. It seems, therefore, reasonable that the Mahāsiddhas such as Saraha, Nāgārjuna, Luipā, Padmavajra, Anaṅgavajra, Indrabhūti and the rest who were masters of Tantra and were great authors and magicians, were the chief agents to boldly and publicly preach their doctrines and exhort people to follow their tenets, doctrines and practices. Their endeavours combined with their unique personal achievements must have converted a considerable number of people to Vajrayāna faith.

c9.s1.22

¹ Kern : *Manual of Buddhism*, p. 133

c9.s1.23

It is rather difficult to point out the source of information from which Tārānāth drew his inspiration, but a perusal of such Tāntric works as the Guhyasiddhi of Padmavajra and the Jñānasiddhi of Indrabhūti makes it possible to infer that it was the Guhyasamāja which was regarded as the most ancient and the most authoritative work of the Tantra school. Padmavajra not only advocates the cause of Tāntric Buddhism but also gives a succinct digest of the work which he calls Śrī-Samāja or the ‘Venerable Samāja’ in his treatise which is still unpublished. Indrabhūti in his Jñānasiddhi acknowledges the Guhyasamāja as the work of highest authority, and gives a summary of some chapters and the topics dealt with in this work. There is thus hardly any doubt that the Guhyasamāja is the original Saṅgīti which introduced for the first time the tenets of Vajrayāna into Buddhism. It is believed to have been introduced in an Assembly of the Faithful by Lord Buddha who is here called Sarva-Tathāgata-Kāya-Vāk-Citta. The Guhyasamāja is written in the form of a Saṅgīti and is considered highly authoritative even now amongst the Vajrayānists, and is regarded as one of the Nine Dharmas of Nepal. This is evidently the first work of Vajrayāna, and Asaṅga quite conceivably may have had something to do with it, as it is commonly believed that the Tantras were introduced by Asaṅga after being initiated by Maitreya the Coming Buddha in the mysteries of Tantra in the Tuṣita heaven. 1

c9.s1.24

It cannot be denied that the very beginnings of Buddhism and even when Mahāyāna sprang up in later times a very strict discipline was enjoined on the followers of the faith. On the monks the rules were very strictly put into operation. For instance, they must not have anything to do with women, must not take any forbidden food. Wine, flesh, fish, appetisers and such objects of enjoyment were specially forbidden. The rules were indeed good and were very attractive in the time of the Buddha. But it is wholly absurd to expect obedience to such strict disciplinary measures from all members of the Saṅgha even in the Buddha's life-time, if not for centuries after his disappearance. And after all, what will be the result? Freedom from births and rebirths was only a possibility, and success at best was only questionable! The members of the Saṅgha must have revolted from time to time against the unnatural rules of discipline imposed on them, and party quarrels were already in evidence in the Second Great Council when the Mahāsāṅghikas were expelled from the Orthodox church by the Sthaviras or Elders, because the latter were unwilling to make any concession on the ten minor points of discipline. Rebellion against the rules on broader and more important matters of discipline must have been in existence amongst the monks but they could not create a party of their own which could sufficiently withstand the criticisms of the orthodox section which was sure to go against them and denounce them as heretics. Those monks who saw salvation only in leading a natural life went on devising plans to modify their faith according to their light, probably by writing what is called the original Tantras which were secretly handed down through trusted disciples who could practice their secret rites without let or hindrance. These Tantras are in the form of Saṅgītis and are said to have been delivered by the Buddha in an Assembly of the Faithful. It is in this Saṅgīti form that all new ideas were introduced into Buddhism and the Saṅgītis were very powerful agencies in the introduction of innovations, because Buddhism will not be prepared to accept anything as true unless spoken by the Buddha in a public assembly.

c9.s1.25

The orthodox followers of the faith were sure to challenge anything that had not been sponsored by the Buddha, and that seems to be the reason of the great popularity of the Saṅgīti literature. The original Tantras of Buddhism are written in the Saṅgīti form wherein are inculcated doctrines which are diametrically opposed to the original teachings of the Buddha. Easy methods leading to happiness in this world were held out in this literature, easy paths leading to salvation were shown ; great parade was made of the merits accruing from the repetitions of the Mantras, Dhāraṇīs, panegyrics and worship of gods and goddesses. But everywhere any casual reader can detect a desire on the part of the authors to thwart all unnatural rules and regulations imposed on the followers. These disciplinary regulations, as a consequence gradually slackened down one after another, and ultimately when the Vajrayānists gained in power the secret doctrines no longer remained secret, but were openly preached and practised to the great annoyance of the orthodoxy.

c9.s1.26

¹ For further information refer to introduction to Guhyasamāja published in the Gaekwad's Oriental Series, (GOS).

c9.s1.27

In order to increase the popularity of Vajrayāna the followers included in it every conceivable tenets, dogmas, rites and practices that were calculated to attract more adherents. Thus the leading tenets of Mantrayāna along with Mantras, Maṇḍalas, Mudrās, gods and goddesses were included in Vajrayāna. The earliest work of this class is said to be the Vidyādharapiṭaka which has been characterised by Hiuen Thsang as belonging to the canonical literature of the Mahāsāṅghikas. But this work is not available in original Sanskrit, and it is not possible to say anything with regard to the contents of the text. But with regard to another work the Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa the circumstances are different. This extensive work is published in the Trivandrum Sanskrit Series in three volumes. The text forms a part of the ancient Vaipulyasūtras of Mahāyāna and is decidedly the earliest work of Mantrayāna at present available. It is written in the Saṅgīti style in prose and in verse, and in an archaic style closely resembling the Gāthā style, and is written throughout in what is called the Mixed Sanskrit. This work must have been very popular even after the destruction of Buddhism in India as will be evident from the fact that the book was copied only about four hundred years back in a monastery of South India by Ravicandra the head of the Mūlaghoṣa Vihāra.¹ The Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa deals with the formulae and practices which lead both to meterial prosperity and spiritual regeneration, and belongs to the early centuries A. D. but decidedly after the time of the composition of the Amitāyus Sūtra or the Sukhāvatī Vyūha which ushered in the conception of Amitābha and Avalokiteśvara for the first time in Mahāyāna. The Amitāyus Sūtra was first translated into Chinese in a period between A. D. 148-170, and hence the time of its composition may be fixed at about 100 A. D.²

c9.s1.28

¹ See introduction to the Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa by the editor, Ganapati Shastri.

c9.s1.29

² Sukhāvatīvyūha, p p. 1, 28, 32

c9.s1.30

The Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa in that case would only be about a hundred years later than the Amitāyus Sūtra. If the Guhyasamāja is accepted as the very first work of the Vajrayāna school it must be admitted that much time must have elapsed between the age of the Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa and that of the Guhyasamāja which is put down in circa 300 A. D. ¹

c9.s1.31

¹ See introduction to Guhyasamāja, where this date has been discussed.

c9.s1.32

The beginning of the Saṅgīti in the Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa is in the orthodox style as opposed to the Tāntric style which is decidedly later, and where Bhagavān is introduced in the company of a large number of women instead of an assembly of pious and devout Bodhisattvas only as in the earlier Saṅgītis. The doctrine of the five Dhyāni Buddhas or even their names, Mudrās, Mantras, families, Śaktis, colour and direction are all absent in the Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa. Moreover, the Mantras and Mudrās which were later systematized in the Vajrayāna work of Guhyasamāja are found scattered in the body of the text of the Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa in a disorganised manner. The Mantras of some of the Dhyāni Buddhas are indeed to be found in the Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa although not exactly in the same meaning and form as in the later Guhyasamāja. The Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa further apeaks of Mantrayāna but it does not refer to Vajrayāna which is mentioned for the first time in the Guhyasamāja the Tantra of Secret Communion. Under the circumstances it is possible to call the Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa as one of the earliest Mahāyāna Sūtra works on which perhaps is based the outward foundation of the Vajrayāna system. Yet one who willread this work carefully will not fail to notice that it is a product behind which there is a history of development of several centuries. And probably, if ever one can go to the root of Mantrayāna one will have to voice the opinion of Śāntarakṣita and Kamalaśīla that instruction on Tantras, Mudrās and Maṇḍalas were delivered by the Buddha for the benefit of such followers as would care more for their material prosperity than spiritual.

c9.s1.33

Vajrayāna thus included in its purview all varieties of attractive tenets, notions, dogmas, theories, rites and practices, and incorporated all that was best in Buddhsim and probably in Hinduism also, and owing to this circumstance Vajrayāna attained great fame and popularity. It satisfied everybody, the cultured and the uncultured, the pious and the sinner, the lower and the higher ranks of the people and devotees. Vajrayāna catered to all tastes with equal efficiency, and it had something useful for everybody. Its universal popularity became an established fact.

c9.s1.34

It is difficult to say from what exact locality Tāntrism took its origin. In the Sādhanamālā are mentioned the four Pīṭhas or sacred spots of the Vajrayānists, namely, Kāmākhyā, Sirihaṭṭa, Pūrṇagiri and Uḍḍiyāna. The Tibetan authorities are of opinion that the Tāntric Buddhism originated from Uḍḍiyāna. The location of Uḍḍiyāna thus is important for the history of the Buddhist Tāntric literature.

c9.s1.35

Uḍḍiyāna is mentioned in the Sādhanamālā rather frequently. The earliest manuscript of the Sādhanamālā is dated in the Newari Era 285 which is equivalent to A. D. 1165. In this work Uḍḍiyāna is connected with the Sādhana of Kurukullā, Trailokyavaśamkara, Mārīcī and Vajrayoginī. The Sādhanamālā also connects Uḍḍiyāna with such Tāntric authors as Saraha. The Jñānasiddhi of Indrabhūti is stated in the last colophon as having started from Uḍḍiyāna (Oḍiyāna).

c9.s1.36

Uḍḍiyāna being one of the four Pīṭhas sacred to Vajrayoginī should be at least near Kāmākhyā (Kāmarūpa), and Sirihaṭṭa (Sylhet) in Assam and it is not unusual to think that all these four Pīṭhas received their sanctity from temples dedicated to Vajrayoginī. Thus Uḍḍiyāna has to be located in Eastern and Assam area.

c9.s1.37

In the mediæval period when Tantras flourished, Vaṅga and Samataṭa were the two important centres of culture in Bengal. Vaṅga included the present Dacca, Faridpur and Backerganj districts, while Samataṭa comprised the present Sylhet, Chittagong, Tipperah and Mymensingh districts. That Vaṅga and Samataṭa were the two great centres of culture in Bengal is borne out by the numerous Buddhist and Brahmanical images of the Tāntric type discovered in the whole of this region. Numerous old inscriptions, remains of old buildings, coins and terracottas found in these regions, confirm the conclusion that from the Vaṅga-Samataṭa area radiated different streams of culture to the rest of Eastern India.¹

c9.s1.38

¹ Bhattasali : IBBS, intro. p. xxviii.

c9.s1.39

In this Vaṅga-Samataṭa region one of the most important places is the Pargaṇā Vikrampur in the Dacca district. Anyone acquainted with the ancient inscriptions of Bengal will be able to appreciate the importance of Vikrampur which is sometimes mentioned as the seat from which imperial charters were issued. There was a great Buddhist monastery here in the reign of the Candras and the Senas. Atīśa Dīpaṅkara, famous in Tibetan history as a great scholar and master of Tāntric lore, is said to belong to the royal family of Vikrampur. Vikrampur is recognized even to-day as one of the foremost places of culture in East Bengal.

c9.s1.40

In this Pargana Vikrampur there is a fairly large and well-populated village which is now known by the rather extraordinary name of Vajrayoginī. Round about this village numerous Vajrayāna images have been discovered, and among them may be noticed images of Jambhala, Parṇaśabarī, Vajrasattva and Tārā. The term ‘Vajra’ in Vajrayoginī is also a familiar Buddhist word. Vajra is equivalent to Śūnya. Vajrayoginī is a Buddhist deity which the Hindus borrowed in the form of Chhinnamastā. Thus the name of the village appears to be unmistakably Buddhist. The village must have derived its name from the temple of Vajrayoginī which was in existence in early times.

c9.s1.41

It has already been pointed out that the temples dedicated to Vajrayoginī could only be expected at four places, Kāmākhyā, Sirihaṭṭa, Pūrṇagiri and Uḍḍiyāna. Out of these Kāmākhyā and Sirihaṭṭa (Sylhet) still retain their original names. Pūrṇagiri which signifies a hill is not identified yet with certainty. But it is possible to spot the fourth place which is connected with Vajrayoginī. Thus it becomes evident that the present village Vajrayoginī was originally known as Uḍḍiyāna but as the deity Vrjrayoginī became more popular later, the original name gradually disappeared giving place to the name of the deity. Tāntrism of the Buddhists therefore originated here in Uḍḍiyāna-Vajrayoginī, and thence was transmited to the rest of India.¹

c9.s1.42

¹ For further details, see the author's article, entitled The Home of Tāntric Buddhism in B. C. Law Commemmoration Volume, Vol. I.

c9.s1.43

One of the chief topics dealt with in Vajrayāna is the deity. These deities are a product of psychic exercises of the most subtle character, and are visualized by the worshipper in the course of intense meditation. These psychic exercises are called the Sādhanas a collection of which is published in the Sādhanamālā already referred to. To appreciate Buddhist iconography, therefore, a reference to the Sādhana process of god-realisation is necessary. This process is described in the next section.

3. The Psychic Process of Sādhana

c9.s2.1

The Tāntrics of ancient India were formidable optimists. They intuitively realised that though this universe is composed of matter and spirit, it is the spirit which always dominates over matter, and is undoubtedly more powerful than the latter. There were several schools of thought in ancient India which took it for granted that spirit was supreme and that this spirit should be developed in order that power may be gained. Amongst these schools the Yoga and Tantra were preeminently the most influential and popular. The followers of these schools, particularly the latter, wanted to achieve through spiritual or psychic power everything that could be achieved in the material sphere. To-day for quick travel the material world presents to us railways, aeroplanes and steamers, but the Tāntrics claimed that by spiritual culture weight of the body can be so reduced that it can fly over space to any distance within the shortest possible time. To-day for information about kinsmen in distant lands people send letters, wires and cables, but the Tāntrics claim that by intense meditation alone they can visualize what is happening in other parts of the world, either by a projection of the mind or by mentally travelling the distance in a few seconds. For conversing with a friend at a long distance the material world provides telephones and wireless instruments but the Tāntrics claim that by psychic exercises they can hear anything from any distance, even the voice of gods and other invisible beings in the firmament. When a man suffers from disease the material world provides doctors, medicines, injections and so forth, but to a Tāntric these are unnecssary. By developing psychic resources of the mind he can cure by a mere glance, or touch or by recitation of Mantras. These extraordinary powers of the mind are called Siddhis.

c9.s2.2

Thus it can be seen that the Tāntrics recognised long before the present age that psychic culture is of the utmost importance in life, and through these exercises anything that can be accomplished in the material sphere can be achieved in the psychic sphere. This tendency even in the present day is a dominating factor in Indian life, and no one should wonder seeing people running after Sādhus and Sannyāsins leaving aside modern scientific men in many of their difficulties. Occasionally, stories are told of miraculous powers of ascetics over the elements of nature or of their power of curing diseases for which apparently no recognised system of scientific medicine has discovered a cure. There are many such Yogins even now in India moving about in jungles, cities, caves and mountains, possessing wonderful and miraculous powers.

c9.s2.3

The Tāntrics who were the advocates of psychic culture, by persistent efforts through mental exercises, used to obtain super-normal powers which were known as Siddhis. Those who gained such Siddhis were called Siddhas, and the process through which they obtained Siddhis called Sādhana. In the Yogasūtra which is recognised to be the earliest work in Sanskrit on the subject of psychic exercises, enumerates eight different Siddhis. Later works mention more and the Brahmavaivarta Purāṇa mentions thirty-four kinds of Siddhis including the eight already mentioned in the Yogasūtra.

c9.s2.4

The Siddhas or those who attain super-normal powers are considered to be of three distinct varieties, the Best, Middling and the Mild. The first class magicians can fulfil all their desires by mere thought, that is to say, as soon as a desire arises in his mind it is instantly fulfilled.

c9.s2.5

The Middling variety of Siddhas is able to conquer death, commune with gods, enter unperceived into dead bodies or homes of others, move in the air, hear the gods talk, understand all terrestrial truths, obtain conveyances and ornaments, and are able to bewitch people, perform miracles, remove diseases by glance or touch, extract poison, obtain erudition in scriptures, renounce all worldly enjoyments, practise Yoga in all its subdivisions, show compassion to all beings and even obtain omniscience. The Mild or the third class of Siddha obtains fame, long life, conveyances, ornaments, familiarity with the king, popularity with royal personages and people of influence and power, wealth and prosperity, children and family.

c9.s2.6

The Siddhas of the first and second class were known as Mahāsiddhas ‘Great Magicians’ and in India their number was recognized as eighty-four. Most of these Mahāsiddhas flourished during the Pāla Period of Indian history (8th to 12th centuries A.D.) and were famous because of their uncanny and prodigious feats.

c9.s2.7

The Sādhana or the process prescribed for attaining the different Siddhis forms the bulk of the Tāntric literature of both the Buddhists and the Hindus. Thousands of Sādhanas were written, both in prose and in verse, in Sanskrit and thousands were translated into Tibetan and are now preserved in the pages of the Tibetan Tangyur. Besides, every Tāntric manuscript, cart loads of which are even to-day to be found in public and private collections, describes the Sādhanas through which Siddhis are possible of attainment. The Buddhists had a special literature called the Sādhanas and they were always written in Sanskrit by many of the well known Tāntric authors and the Mahāsiddhas. This literature is now almost lost in original Sanskrit, but fortunately for us some collections of Sādhanas are still extant. These collections were given the names of Sādhanamālā and Sādhanasamuccaya, and a critical edition of all available Sādhanas in these two collections is already published in two volumes in the Gaekwad’s Oriental Series as Nos. 26 and 41. The publication of these Sādhanas has revealed a number of hitherto unknown and important facts. The Sādhanas revealed that the Buddhists were not lagging behind any other religion in India in the matter of psychic culture as advocated in the Tantras. Secondly, as these Sādhanas contain the description of a large number of Buddhist deities it becomes possible to differentiate them from the deities of the Hindu and Jain faiths, and to determine the purpose for which they were made and what they stood for.

First 71 of 163 passages. Read on

Linked texts (31)