Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c24: Chapter XVII: The Dravidian Style: The Temples of the Cholas (A.D. 900 to 1150)
Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c24
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Chapter XVII: The Dravidian Style: The Temples of the Cholas (A.D. 900 to 1150)
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THE DRAVIDIAN STYLE
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THE unsettled state of the Tamil country, brought about by the conflicts between the various dynasties such as the Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas, Chalukyas, and Rastrakutas, all striving for supremacy, precluded any great cultural advance or any notable enterprises being undertaken during the last centuries of the first millennium. Out of this struggle for power the Cholas finally emerged triumphant, and proceeded in the course of time to become paramount in Southern India. Their dynastic history began about 900 A D., and their rule attained its meridian a century later, declining towards the middle of the twelfth century, when it succumbed to the rising power of the Pandyas. During the first century of this 250 years of their supremacy, the Cholas found themselves principally engaged in territorial aggrandisement, as they extended their dominion as far as the Ganges in the north, and included Ceylon in the south, while a portion of Burma also came within their influence.
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Preoccupied as the dynasty was in this manner, the buildings attributed to the Cholas during the tenth century are not many, nor are they large, and they imply a local rather than an imperial development. A certain number of examples are to be found in and around the State of Pudukkottai, and are all small temples built entirely of stone. Among them mention may be made of the Sundareswara temple at Tirukattalai; the Vijayalaya temple in Nartamalai, with a circular sanctuary of an unusual order; and the triple temple the Muvarkoil in Kodumbelur, of which however only two of its sanctuaries are preserved. The first two of the group were executed in the ninth century, so that they are probably the earliest of their style, while the triple temple may be ascribed to the tenth century. Other temples in Pudukkottai territory are as follows: Mucukundesvara in Kolattur taluk; Kadambar in Kadambarmalai, Nartamalai; and Balasubrahmanaya in Kannanur, Tirumayam taluk.¹ Similar structures, may be found as far south as S. Arcot, such as in Tiruppur, Visalur, Panangudi, and Kaliyapatti, in Kolathur taluk, and in Enadi, Tirumayam taluk. The importance of all these buildings, however small many of them are, may be realized when working out the development of the Dravidian style at this formative stage. Most of them are constructed of well dressed granite blocks accurately coursed and bonded. Dating from the 9th and 10th centuries, that they are in the early Chola style is fairly evident, but at the same time Pallava features are observable, while their relation to the monolithic rathas at Mamallapuram may be noted. As a connecting link in the progress of the building art in Southern India each example is worthy of study. All these small structures are very complete in their formation and display a freshness and spirit in marked contrast to the last productions of the declining style of the Pallavas. So much so that they appear to herald either a new movement, or to denote some stimulation received from another and more virile source. The latter assumption is the more likely as all the temples of the group show by the treatment a close affinity to those of the more distant Chalukyans than to any revival of the style of their predecessors the Pallavas. Such influence although a little remote is not improbable as at this time the Chalukyans were again extending their power, and under their later rulers the building art, as will be shown hereafter, was much encouraged. This relation of the Chola temples at Pudukkottai of the ninth and tenth centuries to the productions of the early Chalukyans may be observed specially in the shape of the domical finial of the sikhara, which has a double flexured contour similar to that in the temples of Badami and Pattadakal. (Chapter XIV).
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¹ Chola Temples in Pudukkottai, by Venkataranga Raju, Journal of the Indian Art Society, Calcutta, 1937, p. 78 et seq.
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For the purposes of study however reference may be made to a larger and more distinctive example of the early architecture of the Cholas, the temple of Koranganatha at Srinivasanallur in the Trichinopoly district. (Plate LXVI). This was built probably during the reign of one of the first of the dynasty, Parantaka I (907-949), and therefore dates before the middle of the tenth century. Its peculiar name is due to a local legend which records that on completion it was defiled by a monkey (*korangu*), and thus was never consecrated. Consisting of a pillared hall, or mandapa, with its attached sanctuary or vimana, its total length is 50 feet, the former occupying a rectangle 25 feet by 20 feet, and the latter a square of 25 feet side. The height of the sikhara or tower is 50 feet, while the cornice of the mandapa measures 16 feet from the ground. A small hall having four pillars comprises the interior, with a vestibule and passage beyond leading to the cella, a square chamber of 12 feet side.
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These dimensions serve to show that the Koranganatha is a building of modest proportions. Compared with the temples of the previous period, although conceived on the same general principle, there is a marked change in the method of architectural treatment. In the composition of the exterior it displays a noticeable simplification in all its parts, which are also more reasoned in their forms and in their distribution; an elimination of much of that detail which frets the surfaces of the later Pallava example is likewise observable. Moreover, it is proof that the builders had acquired an appreciation of the value of plain spaces, together with due sense of the character and correct location of the architectural features required for the purposes of embellishment. That dominating element of the previous style, the lion motif, both sedent and rampant, has disappeared, the pillars and pilasters which this leogriff invariably adorned, being converted into purely abstract conventions of mouldings and other similar forms. The Chola conception of the Dravidian order of capital at this stage is admirably illustrated by the pillars of its interior. (Plate XI, Fig. 11). Two changes from the Pallava type of order are discernible, one relating to the capital itself, the other to the abacus above. In the capital a neck moulding (*padmabhandam*) has been introduced where it joins on to the shaft, thus appropriating Fig 2
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Fig. 3
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Bhubaneswar: Parasrameswar Temple (before restoration) ; c 8th cent. A.D
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Fig 1 Mukhteswar Temple from SE . c A D 900
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Fig 2 Wheels on the Temple of the Sun, Konarak
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[Figure: Fig. 1 Vaital Deul, c. A.D. 850.]
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[Figure: Fig 2 Rāja Rānī, c A D. 1000.]
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[Figure: SECTION AND PLAN OF THE GREAT (LINGARAJ) TEMPLE AT BHUBANESWAR, ORISSA CIR. 1000 A.D.
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SECTION ON A.B. PLAN BHOG MANDIR NAT MANDIR JAGAMOHAN SRI MANDIR PLAN OF SHIKARA FROM BELOW | PLAN OF SHIKARA FROM ABOVE UPPER PART OF SHIKARA]
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to itself a segment of the upper part of the shaft, and adding another member to the lower part of the capital in the form of a vessel or pot (*kalasa*). As to the abacus, the *palagai* or "plank", is much expanded, so that combined with the flower-shape (*idale*) underneath, it becomes the most striking element in the order. There is good proportion and suitability expressed in this example of the Chola pillar and capital.
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In addition to the strictly architectural treatment of its exterior, there is a considerable amount of sculpture on the wall surfaces of the vimana, consisting chiefly of full-length figures installed within recesses, each about half life-size and in very bold relief, so that in a manner they recall the images of saints occupying niches in Gothic cathedrals. On the centre of the southern wall of the Koranganatha there is a particularly well rendered scene representing the goddess Kali as Dakshina, with Saraswati on her left and Lakshmi on her right, while below is Asura, the enemy of the gods, and around are various *gana-devatas*, or lesser deities. Compared with the plastic art of the previous period, in the Chola sculpture there is the beginning of that voluptuous treatment of the human figure in which the image is in such high relief that it resembles statuary in the round rather than relief work. Such however is the usual course in the development of the sculptors' art, a progress from the conventional to the representational, as may be observed in the change from the first to the second period of Greek sculpture
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Another ornamental feature of some interest appears in the Chola buildings, and is illustrated in the Koranganatha example. As already indicated the devices of heraldic lions and other supernatural beasts were eliminated in the temples of this period, but a different animalized motif now emerges. It takes the form of a string-course, frequently repeated, containing a row of gryphons heads, the use of which as a decorative element in the temple scheme was continued throughout the subsequent periods of the Dravidian style. Some signs of this striking motif are discernible in the early Chalukyan temples but it is not observable in the Pallava examples. These gargoyle-like heads squirming under the weight of the superimposed masonry, as if their bodies were immured within the joints of the structure are, *rakshasas* or earth-spirits, so imprisoned that they may guard the temple, but at the same time they are helpless to cause it harm. Here we seem to see something that corresponded to the "bestiaries" of the West, those representations of fabulous creatures so popular in Europe about this date and which are believed to have had their origin in the East. Although usually in pictorial manuscripts, these "unicorns, yales, leopards, and fire-breathing panthers" were not infrequently carved on Gothic churches in much the same manner as those on the Chola temple. Taken as a whole the temple at Srinivasanalur, although decidedly unpretentious, appears as an unaffected illustration of a transition stage in the evolution of the Dravidian style. It denotes that the Cholas at this period were passing through a process of formation in their architectural culture, treasuring their traditions but at the same time exercising their discretion with regard to what was handed down to them, thus restricting their aspirations to accord with their undeveloped ideals
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In the course of time, however, maturity was attained, as the two magnificent temples of Tanjore and Gangaikonda-cholapuram, erected less than a century afterwards, abundantly testify. In comparison with the temple of Koranganatha, they are as cathedrals to a parish church. Both built within the first quarter of the eleventh century, they prove that, during the intervening period, the Chola dynasty had been made aware of its vast power, and had had its character revealed to itself. The first ruler to become conscious of this sense of their own might was Rajaraja the Great (985-1018), which he proceeded to inaugurate by a superb architectural monument. It must have been a profoundly spiritual impulse which moved this ruler to commemorate the material achievements of his line in the great Siva (Brihadesvara) temple at Tanjore erected about the year 1000. (Plate LXVII). Apparently the largest, highest and most ambitious production of its kind hitherto undertaken by Indian builders, it is a landmark in the evolution of the building art in southern India. In size alone, regardless of its superb architectural treatment, its proportions are considerable, as the main structure is 180 feet long, above which rises a massive pyramidal tower 190 feet high, and from these dimensions some idea of the magnitude of the work and the courage and skill required to complete it may be realized. Except for the Great Lingaraja temple at Bhubaneswar in Orissa (Chapter XXI), which even then was a recent production, with a sikhara of 160 feet in height, few buildings had been raised of a greater height than 60 feet. As a measure of its size the vimana is equal in height to the central tower of Worcester cathedral, but the temple as a whole is only two-thirds the area of this Gothic example
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The Tanjore temple is composed of several structures combined axially, such as a Nandi pavilion, a pillared portico, and a large assembly hall, all aligned in the centre of a spacious walled enclosure. But the main feature of the entire scheme is the grand tower of the vimana at the western end which dominates everything in its vicinity. Much of the dignity and power of this fine pyramidal pile lies in the simplicity of its parts, which are three in number, consisting of the square vertical base, the tall tapering body, and, over all, the graceful domical finial. The first of these, the vertical base, covers a square of 82 feet side, and rises perpendicularly to a height of 50 feet. From this the pyramidal body mounts up in thirteen diminishing zones, until the width of its apex equals one-third of its base. On the square platform thus formed stands the cupola, the inward curve of its neck producing a pleasing break in the otherwise rigid outlines of the composition while the bulbous dome poised like a light but substantial globe is a fitting finish to its soaring character.
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The architectural manipulation of the surfaces of this fine tower is in keeping with its mass. Specially noticeable is the scheme of decoration applied to the walls of the lowest and upright portion which is divided into two stories by a massive overhanging cornice recalling those of the rock-cut example. Except for this powerful horizontal member the underlying idea is vertical in intention, the two ranges of pilasters above and below being reminiscent of the supercolumniation in the Roman facades. Combined with these pilasters are remarkably ingenious motifs and devices showing great fertility of invention, as for instance a conventional foliation or "tree of knowledge" which enriches so effectively the deeper recesses, and other similar elements. Then, occupying the middle of each compartment is a figure-subject, each statue the central object of its own setting, providing a crowning achievement to the whole. Yet in spite of the supremely imaginative quality of its embellishment the critical eye may discern that, although each feature is an excellent effort in itself, taken as a whole the components do not always co-ordinate, in short, this portion of the facade consists of an assembly of admirable artistic elements, but not in every instance architecturally adequate.
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Turning to the tapering section of the vīmana, the effect of this pyramidal mass is enhanced by the rich manner of its treatment. Its surfaces are patterned by the horizontal lines of the diminishing tiers intersecting the vertical disposition of the ornamental shrines, thus producing an architectural texture of great beauty. Finally there is the contrast of the rounded cupola at the summit, its winged niches on all four sides relieving the severity of the outline just where this is required In erecting this vimana on the principle of a pyramid its builders were on safe ground, for such a form not only conveys the impression of solid strength and stability, but is in reality the most permanent structural shape yet devised and men unconsciously tend to produce handiwork that will last. But there is much more than a desire for durability in this example of Chola architecture, for with its qualities of powerfully adjusted volume there is at the same time a sense of graceful balance so that when seen either close to or from afar its upward sweep is such that it appears to hang in the air. Unquestionably the finest single creation of the Dravidian craftsmen, the Tanjore vimana is also a touchstone of Indian architecture as a whole.
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The other great building produced during the Chola ascendency, the temple of Gangaikoṇḍachōlapuram is a monument evidently erected in a spirit of emulation, to excel, in richness and grandeur its predecessor. (Plate LXVIII). It is attributed to Rajendra I (1018-33), and is all that remains of an extensive capital city, which this ruler built as a record of his power and his pride. Situated about seventeen miles from the town of Kumbakonam, this fine structure now stands in solitary state, except for the mud huts of a village straggling around it, as centuries ago the tide of life receded from these parts leaving it like a great stranded shell Nature with artistic hand has endeavoured to veil its abraded surfaces, not always for its structural good, with festoons of foliage, so that it appears as a lovely grey-green pile slumbering amidst the tangled verdure of a wide neglected garden. Built by a king for the purposes of his own religious ceremonial it has now become the occasional resort of the local idlers, and even its existence is known only to a few.
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The date that this grand temple was erected was about 1025, less than a generation after that at Tanjore, and although it is in much the same style, the increased elaboration of its architectural appearance is not without meaning For the Chola dynasty at this time had attained its most affluent state, and it is therefore fully expressive of its triumphant domination Larger even in plan than its predecessor it is however less in height as the vimana measures only 150 feet from the ground. The temple building itself occupies the middle of an immense walled enclosure designed partly for defensive purposes as there is a substantial bastion at the south-east angle and another smaller one on the west. With its long axis from east to west the entire plan of the temple building forms a rectangle some 340 feet long and 110 feet wide, having its main entrance on the east. This main doorway gives access to the assembly hall, a relatively low building 175 feet by 95 feet and containing over 150 pillars, all rather slender and of comparatively ordinary design In this many columned hall there is the beginning of those famous "thousand pillared mandapas" which were to constitute an important feature in all the large temples complexes of a later date. The arrangement of the pillars in the Gangaikoṇḍachōlapuram interior is peculiar as they are in colonnades and stand on a solid platform four feet high which however is divided down the centre by a passage or aisle on the ground level, while a similar passage on the same level is carried all round the hall. Between this pillared hall and the sanctuary is a vestibule or transept, running at right angles to the axis of the building, and leading to the north and south doorways, both deeply recessed side-entrances approached from outside by flights of steps. Two rows of massive square piers, eight in all, cross this vestibule, beyond which, hidden in darkness, lies the "holy of holies" in the womb of the vimana itself. (Plate LXVII).
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Taken as a whole this assembly hall, comprising the entire frontal portion of the temple, both as regards its exterior as well as its interior is a large but uninspiring production, almost barn-like in its plainness The pillars of the interior are an attempt to give it character, but without much success, while a still greater effort to provide it with some external appearance was made in connexion with the main entrance on the east There are indications that a grand portal was here contemplated, certain of its elements such as the giant figures in high relief on either side, the pylons in front of these, the wide stairways, the immense basement mouldings, and the colossal image of the bull (nandi) leading up to this entrance are almost Assyrian in their dimensions. But for some reason the builders failed either to co-ordinate these fine components, or left the entire scheme incomplete, in either case this eastern front seems to represent an outstanding architectural ideal unfulfilled.
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But whatever criticisms may be applied to this portion of the temple, without doubt the tall pyramidal vimana which towers over the western end is a superb achievement. On plan it is a square of 100 feet side, and as in the Tanjore example, is resolved into the three typical features of the Chola Dravidian sikhara, consisting of the upright ground story, the tapering body, and a domical finial. Like its predecessor also its vertical base is in two stages each defined by a heavy cornice casting horizontally a broad cordon of shadow, while the pyramidal body is in tiers, although here there are only eight of these diminishing zones, thus accounting for its lesser height Where the contours of the tower differ from the previous example is that in place of the strong straight lines and planes of the Tanjore vimana, curves have been introduced, the outline formed by the quoins or external angles of the pyramidal form being made slightly concave, while the surfaces between have been embowed so as to become slightly convex. Such curves give the mass an increased richness, but detract from its power. There is a voluptuousness in the later structure, the beauty of ripe femininity, in contrast to the masculine strength of the earlier type. But in comparing these two architectural productions they present much more than a difference in kind. Stately and formal as an epic may epitomise the Tanjore vimana, while the later example has all the sensuous passion of an eastern lyric, but it seems to go even deeper than that Each is the final and absolute vision of its creator made manifest through the medium of structural form, the one symbolizing conscious might the other sub-conscious grace, but both dictated by that "divinity which has seized the soul".
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No account of these two monuments would be complete without a reference to the statuary with which the square foundational portion is embellished. Most of this takes the form of single figure subjects each occupying its appointed niche in the scheme as a whole. For instance the dancing figure of the god Nataraja is located in a panelled recess on the south-west corner, Siva within the flaming lingam is on the west face, Ganesh the elephant god is on the south, and Chandi Kesa Angrahamurti on the north and so forth, each expressing a spiritual as well as a material embodiment of the deity represented. On the spaces around are depicted attendant beings such as flying *Apsaras* (nymphs), sprawling *Gana-devtas* (lesser divinities), and contorted *Yakshas* (supernatural creatures), with a border of writhing *Rakshasas* (goblins) at the foot of each story. A feature of the lowest portion of the vimana is the character and volume of the base mouldings on which this great pile takes its stand. In few other styles has the importance of a stylobate been so fully understood, with the result that its courses are in complete accord with their function, their proportions are massive without being unduly heavy. Especially does this apply to the ponderous torus and its supporting member, the scale of which, although immense, implies strength combined with equilibrium. The sense of stability expressed by such means in the bases of the Dravidian buildings during this period and also afterwards has rarely been excelled.
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Under the Chola rulers as these two imposing monuments testify, the architecture of the south attained its culmination, and with this effort the dynasty seems to have remained content. The movement neither declined nor died after its supreme achievement, but none the less it had manifestly spent its force, for no specially remarkable buildings appear to have been erected after this date The two temples here described are however sufficient in themselves to establish the architectural reputation of the Chola power.
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Jouveau-Dubreuil, G, *Archaeologie du Sud de L'Inde*, Paris, 1914.