Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c28: Chapter XXI: The Northern or Indo-Aryan Style: Orissa (A.D. 800 to 1250)

Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c28

Language: English

Chapter XXI: The Northern or Indo-Aryan Style: Orissa (A.D. 800 to 1250)

AT this stage a regression becomes necessary, back to the early mediaeval period, in order to take up the beginning of the other great style of Indian architecture which it has been found convenient to designate the Northern or Indo-Aryan. Unlike the Dravidian style just described, this Indo-Aryan development was not confined to a relatively restricted area such as the southern extremity of the peninsula, but was practised in one form or another over at least three quarters of the northern portion of the subcontinent. And also unlike the southern mode, on account of the examples being more widely distributed, it is not possible to treat its various phases dynastically, but they will be dealt with geographically, so that each will be described according to the region in which it flourished.

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These regional developments are some six in number, the majority of which correspond in some degree to the main territories into which the country as a whole is divided. One of the earliest movements, and one of the most definite in its evolution, was that on the eastern seaboard, in the State of Orissa, or, according to its ancient name, Kalinga. Rather later in its origin, and, as it is confined to one locality and one period, so that it consists of a group rather than a movement, are the examples at Khajuraho in Central India, all of which were built in a hundred years, from A.D. 950 to 1050. Further west and spread over the country of Rajputana and the adjacent portions of Central India, are the remains of many temples, representing what may be termed a post-Gupta period as it was in this direction that the Gupta empire extended. South of this region, an important epoch of temple building took place in Gujarat and Kathiawar, the former being specially rich in architectural remains as the artistic traditions of its people are noteworthy. Still further south, in the Deccan, a phase of the building art prevailed in which the most southerly examples of the Indo-Aryan style are found. Finally, as they are rather of a distinctive character a few temples in the Fort at Gwalior and a local development at Brindaban near Muttra are referred to as small separate groups. Although each regional manifestation has its own particular qualities, there is throughout the entire range of this type of architecture, a certain undercurrent of thought resulting in a standardization of forms, principles, and procedure, which indicate that fundamentally all these examples belong to the same wide movement.

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For reasons already stated the temples of Orissa provide the most logical beginning for a study of the Indo-Aryan style. The main group is concentrated in the town of Bhubaneswar where there are over thirty examples. But a few miles from this temple-town are two of the largest and most important buildings in this locality, the temple of Jagannath at Puri, and the remains of the Temple of the Sun at Konarak. Apart however from the central development, a considerable distance along the coast towards the south, as far away as Ganjam within the Madras State, there is a small group in this style at Mukhalingam, which has no little significance. In the other direction from Bhubaneswar, towards the north, an offshoot of the movement is to be found in a series of ruined shrines in the State of Mayurbhanj between Orissa and Bengal, while still further north on the southern borders of Bengal and Bihar there are a few structures of somewhat the same general character. It will be seen therefore that along a wide belt of country extending for some four hundred miles in a north-easterly direction, parallel to the coastline of the Bay of Bengal, this type of temple is fairly common. The earliest of these may date from the eighth century A.D.; and the largest and latest of all, that of Konarak was erected in the middle of the thirteenth century, so that for nearly five hundred years during the early mediaeval period this part of the country was the scene of sustained architectural activity. So much so, that it recalls a similar and almost contemporary phase of cathedral building in Europe, when the builders, the rulers, the priests and the people were overpowered by their faith which found expression in the production of religious monuments. And in the same manner in Orissa so many fine examples persisting over such a period of time, make it possible to trace the gradual evolution of this particular movement without difficulty, an opportunity from various causes not presented in anything like the same continuity elsewhere.

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There is reason to believe that this style of temple architecture approached the eastern region from its southern extremity, spreading northward to form the main development in Orissa. Although the small series at Mukhalingam may not comprise the earliest examples, that the beginning was made in this locality is not unlikely. It has already been shown that a type of temple in a primitive Indo-Aryan style had begun to appear as far south as in the territory of the Chalukyans as early as the sixth century A.D., implying that it may have originated in that quarter. (Plate XLVI, Fig. 1). That there can have been any direct connection between the early Chalukyan structures on the south-west, and the temples of Ganjam on the east is somewhat improbable, but the fact remains that certain architectural affinities are observable which suggest a linking up of the temple design in these two divergent places. If such a correlation is admitted, it may be traced to the political contact which no doubt existed between the Ganga kings of western India on the one hand, and the Ganga dynasty of Kalinganagara, now the modern Mukhalingam, on the other. It was from their capital in Ganjam that the country of Kalinga, at present called Orissa, was administered by the Eastern Gangas from about A.D. 600 By some such means the cultural activities of the Early Chalukyans may have been conveyed to this region on the east, where, beginning from the eighth century certain architectural forms appear, which bear a resemblance to those produced slightly earlier at Aihole and Pattadakal. (Chapters XI and XIV).

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The small group of temples at Mukhalingam consists of three examples, namely Mukhalingeswara, Bhimesvara and Somesvara, whose foundations probably date from the time of the old capital, when its rulers were in touch with the movements in the south and west of the peninsula. These buildings are now very much restored, but the renovations do not appear to have deviated materially from the general shape of the original structure. From their appearance, and specially from the character of their carving, in their present form they may date from the ninth or tenth centuries. The most striking example of the group is the temple of Mukhalingeswara, which in plan, is an incipient type of a *panchayatana*, or temple of five shrines, as apart from the central sanctuary, there are four minor shrines one at each corner. In spite of its presumed Chalukyan origin, in some of the carvings with which the facade is decorated, the presence of a certain kind of scrollwork pattern, and the unmistakable "vase and foliage" order of the pilasters, implies some influence of the Gupta style, which prevailed more in the north and north-west of India towards the seventh century A.D. But at the beginning of its course any movement is the ready recipient of such forms as are conveyed to it from all sources to become incorporated in its productions.

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Turning now to the main group of temples in the Orissan style in the neighbourhood of Bhubaneswar, several facts become apparent which indicate that nevertheless in many of its aspects this architectural movement was very largely of an independent nature. Not only are the plans and general treatment of these religious structures of a special character, but the building art has a separate and distinct nomenclature of its own. The generic name for a temple is *deul*, but as the building in the first instance consisted very often of a sanctuary only, the same word was employed for this tower-like structure also. In front of the *deul* is a square building or assembly hall corresponding to the *mandapa* in other parts, but here known as the *jagamohan*. These two edifices combined constitute the essentials of the Orissan temple type. As the style progressed and also as the temple ritual was developed, other buildings were found necessary, and were added to the front of the assembly hall, thus presenting in the larger examples a series of structures all in one axial alignment. The two buildings usually supplemented were first the *Nat-Mandir* or Dancing Hall, and secondly in front of this the *Bhog Mandir* or Hall of Offerings. Standing on a basement or a plinth (*pista*), these halls were invariably of one story only, and the elevation of each consisted of two parts, a cubical portion (*bada*) below, and a pyramidal roof (*pida*) above. In the same way the lower and upright portion of the *deul* or tower is called the *bada*, but above that it is resolved into three parts, comprising the tall middle portion or *chhapra*, the flat fluted disc at the summit known as the *amla*, and its finial or *kalasa*. This glossary might be extended indefinitely, as the Orissan mason has a technical name for every section, member, and moulding, but except to the actual workmen, many of these serve no useful purpose and a full list would only confuse. Some of the more important terms are shown in the diagram on Plate LXXX.

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Compared with the other regional development in the Indo-Aryan style, the Orissan temples as a whole are of the astylar order, pillars being notable by their absence. In some of the earlier examples the pillar finds a place, suggested no doubt by other modes, but as a rule it was not favoured. In a few of the larger halls however some such support became a structural necessity to sustain the heavy weight of the pyramidal roof, and accordingly a group of four solid piers, one at each corner of a four-square system of roof beams was introduced. One of the most remarkable characteristics of the Orissan temple is the plan and featureless treatment of the interior contrasted with the profusely ornamented walls of the exterior, the surfaces of which are charged with a superfluity of plastic patterns and forms. The difference between the rich carving on the outside, and the simple unadorned planes of the interior can only be accounted for by the existence of some esoteric tradition which the builders either instinctively followed, or were compelled strictly to observe.

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For the purposes of study the temples of Orissa may be resolved into three groups, according to their date and style. These are as follows: (1) Early, cir. A.D. 750 to 900; (2) Middle, cir. A.D. 900 to 1100; (3) Later, cir. A.D. 1100 to 1250. Out of the very large number of temples belonging to these groups, there are some twenty of consequence which are classified below.

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EARLY PERIOD cir. A. D. 750 to 900—

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| Parasrameswar | at Bhubaneswar. |
| Vaital Deul | " " |
| Uttaresvara | " " |
| Isvaresvara | " " |
| Sutru Ganesvara | " " |
| Bharatesvara | " " |
| Lakshmanesvara | " " |

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MIDDLE PERIOD cir. A.D. 900 to 1100—

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LATER PERIOD cir. 1100 to 1250—

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It will be seen that of the Early Period there are seven examples, all of them at Bhubaneswar. Three of these, Sutru Ganesvara, Bharatesvara, and Lakshmanesvara are ruined shrines of small size situated near the much later temple of Rameswara. The remaining four are all fully formed temples, namely Vaital Deul and Iswaresvara, both of which are in the town and within the same enclosure; Uttaresvara, in north of the Vindu-Sarovara tank, and Parasrameswar, on the outskirts of the town. The buildings of this group vary considerably in size and shape, but all display that spirit of ingenuousness which betokens the early effort. Their primitive character is obvious in the architectural treatment, and there are also discernible forms and elements derived from a number of sources, showing wide contacts and various influences. But it is in the plastic decoration of their exteriors that this unsophisticated nature is most in evidence, and it is illustrated in both the subject-matter and its method of representation. For in these carved patterns there are artists' memories or previous experiences, mysterious insertions and fragmentary statements, introduced sometimes irrationally and without full knowledge of their meaning, while some of the motifs are frankly of Buddhist extraction. Two of the early examples at Bhubaneswar, the temples of Parasrameswar and Vaital Deul are of surpassing interest and throw no little light on the origins of the style.

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Judging mainly from its appearance, the oldest building of the entire series is the temple of Parasrameswar, a small structure, but with every stone of an informative nature. (Plate LXXXII). It consists of a sanctuary with its pillared hall, in other words a *deul* and its *jagamohan*, the entire length of the two being only 48 feet, while the sikhara of the former is but 44 feet high. In size therefore it may almost be regarded as a "museum piece", but in effect this little building is much more than that, for with the other example, the Vaital Deul, these two temples constitute a "lithic primer" on the beginnings of the Orissan mode. The shape of the tower of the Parasrameswar is definitely rudimentary, as it is thick-set and "heavy-shouldered", with an immensely wide fluted *amala-sila* or coping stone. A low rectangular structure comprises the hall of the temple, and this is provided with a double roof and plain massive eaves, while there is a doorway in each of its three free sides and four perforated stone windows. In the interior of the *jagamohan* are two rows of pillars, three in each row, producing a miniature nave and aisles; these pillars were originally monoliths having plain square shafts, no bases, but with voluted bracket capitals. They supported a massive architrave raising the ceiling of the nave higher than the aisles, thus forming an embryo clerestory. The interior is perfectly plain, whereas the walls of the exterior are intricately and profusely carved. (Plate LXXXII, Fig. 1).

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One inexplicable feature in connection with this temple is the character of the juncture between the pillared hall and the sanctuary, which seems to imply that the two structures were built at different times The sanctuary may have been added a generation or so later, to take the place of an earlier edifice which had probably fallen into decay. On the other hand there are indications that the *jagamohan* itself may have been the subsequent addition, although on grounds of style this does not appear likely. In any case the joining of the two structures is a haphazard piece of work, as the end of the pillared hall covers up some of the carving on the face of the sanctuary. Moreover, the sculpture is not of the same character in the two buildings, some of that on the *jagamohan* being so naive as to be classed as a folk-art. But one portion stands out as being a production of exceptional merit, namely the two stone grilles, one on each side of the west doorway. (Plate LXXXII, Figs. 2 and 3). These represent figures of young dancers and musicians with trumpet and with shawm, lute and cymbal, so grouped as to form perforated stone windows. In some respects these panels might be reproductions in stone of one of Della Robbia's glazed terracotta reliefs, excelling even the work of that famous Florentine in their vigour and rhythm, and evidently the creation of one who has left this brilliant work of art as the sole record of his inimitable genius.

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The method of construction used in this building serves to confirm its early origin, as the masonry consists of stones of large size kept in position by means of their weight and balance, aided by a system of interlocking flanges, so that no mortar or cementing material is needed. (Plate LI, Fig. 1). An interesting comparison may be instituted between this temple, and the somewhat earlier temples of the Chalukyans at Aihole It will be seen that the tower of the Parasrameswar example, although inclined to be heavy and crude, is an improvement on the Indo-Aryan type of sikhara subsequently added to the Aihole buildings. Moreover the incipient form of clerestory introduced into the Orissan temple is also an advance on the double roof of the Durga and Huchchimaligudi temples of the Chalukyan group, from which however it may have been derived. It is the peculiar treatment of such features, which suggests that some communication of impressions may have been maintained between these two centres, thus enabling the Orissan mason to benefit by the experiences of his fellow craftsman in the Deccan. On the other hand, there are certain portions of the architectural ornamentation in the Parasrameswar temple, such as pilasters with vase and foliage capitals, a motif usually associated with the Gupta mode, indicating, as already mentioned, that there were also influences from the more northerly source. Taking all these factors into consideration it may be inferred that the approximate date of the Parasrameswar temple is towards the end of the eighth century, a date which also marks the introduction of the Indo-Aryan style of architecture into this region.

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The other temple illustrating the early phase, the Vaital Deul, was evidently erected rather later than Parasrameswar, although it may be contemporary with the sanctuary of that example, which it has been shown may have been a subsequent addition. But the Vaital Deul is a very different conception, and derives from another an entirely different tradition. (Plate LXXXIV, Fig 1). For it is obvious that the tower of its sanctuary is not only allied more to the southern style as exemplified by the Dravidian gopurams, but like those structures, its original ancestor was the chaitya-hall of the Buddhists. In spite, however, of its elongated vaulted roof in two stories, with its ridge finials and chaitya-arch gable ends, all expressive of the Buddhist type, there is every evidence in the distinctive quality of its architectural treatment that fundamentally it is of Indo-Aryan extraction. In its own manner the *jagamohan*, or hall in front of this sanctuary is also of uncommon design. This is a rectangular structure, but embedded in each angle is a small supplementary shrine, a replica in miniature of an Indo-Aryan vimana, so that it is, in effect, an example of a *panchayatana* or five-shrined type of temple, but in a nascent stage of its evolution.

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The Vaital Deul is a comparatively small building, its plan measures only 18 feet by 25 feet, and its height to the ridge of its keel roof is barely 35 feet, but within this limited compass there is much that is informative, and much that is strangely beautiful. Its chief effect is contained in the tower, the proportions of which are most satisfying, but in addition to the well-balanced arrangement of its parts, the handling of its surfaces, and the manner in which the architectural decoration is disposed, all denote a highly trained aesthetic sensibility. This specially applies to the flat projections, like shallow buttresses, placed around the *bada* or base of the structure. There are four of these on the narrower side of the tower and five on the wider, each of which contains in its centre a recess enshrining an image sculptured in bold relief and each about two feet in height. These projections, richly patterned, alternate with flat uncarved recesses, the contrast thus afforded producing an admirable appearance. Then in the front of the tower, thrown out above the roof of the *jagamohan* is an elegant foliated gable, a development of the Buddhist chaitya-arch, with the Hindu *Tandava* motif or Dancing Siva within a circular panel in place of the sun-window, that characteristic feature of the Buddhist temple facades.

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The second group of buildings comprising the "Middle Period" of the Orissan style, and dating from cır. 900 to 1100 A.D. consists of a series of temples which represent the movement at its early maturity or prime What is believed to be the first example of the phase is the small temple of Muktesvara situated with a number of others on the outskirts of the town of Bhubaneswar, and probably built about A D 975. (Plate LXXXIII, Fig. 1). It is a miniature gem of architecture as it is not only a highly finished structure, ornamented with fascinating carved patterns, but in addition it is approached by an arched gateway, or torana, of the most elegant design and execution (Plate XCII). There are certain details in the design of this temple, which enable its date to be fixed with tolerable accuracy as for instance the shape of the vase base of the pilasters, the character of the bracket supports to the figures, and the modelling of the figures themselves, all of which imply a slight immaturity as if they were still in course of development. That its elements are a considerable advance on those of Parasrameswar and Vaital Deul of the previous group is quite clear, but that it is also not so finished in its forms as the remaining examples of the series, is likewise apparent. The Mukteswara temple is 45 feet long, 25 feet at its widest part, and its tower is hardly 35 feet high, but although of such limited dimensions it is all so exceptionally well proportioned, and its parts so skilfully adjusted that it readily attracts the eye In its surface decoration there is such beauty of form that all its surfaces resolve themselves into one harmonious effect, but a large figure-design repeated on each side of the tower stands out on account of its vigorous grace. The torana archway in front of the entrance is one of the most original conceptions throughout the entire style, and evidently the production of an artist having superior vision and skill, with a mind above his fellows. This detached portal consists of two pillars supporting around arch within a semi-circular shaped pediment, the whole very substantially proportioned, but all its parts lightened and diversified by exquisite carving. The Mukteswara temple is one of the few temples of the Orissan group which has sculptured decoration in its interior.

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But the most representative examples of the "Middle Period" are two temples of monumental proportions, the Lingaraja (cir. A.D. 1000) at Bhubaneswar, and the Jagannath (cir A D 1100), at Puri, the former being not only the finest living example of the Orissan group, but it ranks as one of the foremost architectural productions of the country. (Plate LVIII, Fig. 4) The Lingaraja, or Great Temple of Bhubaneswar, occupies the centre of a large quadrangular enclosure measuring 520 feet by 465 feet, contained within a high and solid wall, on the inner face of which is a platform, so that on occasions it could be patrolled and defended. Within the enclosure many subsidiary "chapels" and shrines have been grouped around the main temple, contributions by ardent devotees as acts of merit. The presence of this great central building in the midst of numerous smaller replicas cannot fail to recall the practice of the Buddhists in congregating their votive chaityas around the large central stupa. Such an arrangement however not only applies to the system within the Lingaraja enclosure, but also in its wider aspect to the large concentration of temples within and around the town of Bhubaneswar itself, plainly indicating that this neighbourhood was a place of great veneration, a holy land of profoundly religious significance. It is not unlikely therefore that the locality was the site of a deserted sanctuary belonging to previous movements, either the sacred town of Tosali of the Buddhists, or the Ekrama Tīrtha of the Jains The ancient usage of these two creeds of grouping their shrines in this manner was therefore maintained by the Hindus

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As it stands at present the Lingaraja consists of the four structures which comprise the fully developed Orissan temple-type, namely the *Deul*, or *Sri Mandir*, as it is called in this particular instance, and corresponding to the Vimana in other parts , the Pillared Hall or *Jagamohan*, in other words the mandapam ; the Dancing Hall, or *Nat Mandir*, and the Hall of Offerings, or *Bhog Mandir*. (Plate LXXXV) These buildings are all disposed on the same axis, which extends from east to west, but they do not all date from the same period , the temple as originally designed was composed of only the two structures, the Srı Mandır, and the *jagamohan*, the two other halls being added probably a century or more later. These supplementary buildings, however, became responsible for certain structural alterations to the original scheme Before they were added the only entrance to the temple was that on the east or front of the jagamohan, which formed the main doorway. When the Nat Mandır was built in front of this, another doorway became necessary This was effected in a rather crude manner by cutting a rectangular opening below the southern window and thus converting it into a portal, a disfigurement it is true, although not such a serious one, as it all fits into the carved surface of the wall.

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Undoubtedly the most impressive feature of this temple is the great tower of the Srı Mandır, as it dominates not only the entire composition, but the whole town of Bhubaneswar with its height and volume At its base it measures 56 feet side, although owing to its projecting faces or *pagas*, it is not square in plan, as the sides are indented by regular chases. In its elevational aspect for approximately one-third of its height the sides are vertical, the lower portion of which constitutes the *bada* or ground-story, distinguished from the rest of the tower by a separate form of surface treatment. At the height of about 50 feet the contours of the structure, up to this point vertical, begin to incline inwards, speeding up into a pronounced parabolic curve to produce the "shoulder" at 125 feet from the ground. Above the curves of the shoulder rises the neck or *beki*, over which is the ponderous fluted disc or *amila-sıla*, supported by sedent gryphons, the whole being crowned by a vase-shaped finial (*kalasa*) bearing the *trisula* or trident of Siva. All the middle section of the tower is richly textured by means of horizontal mouldings, which, carried in lines across the recessed chases of the sides produce a suitable background for the attachment of certain selected motifs These motifs consist of a vertical line of miniature *deuls*, small-scale replicas of the tower itself, which fill in the angles of the recesses, and, on each side taking the shape of a prominent projection is a representation of a lion crushing down an elephant, a frequent symbol in the architecture of Orissa. Within the tower is the *cella* 19 feet square, but instead of a ceiled chamber it is continued upwards somewhat in the manner of a well, or chimney, forming a hollow space throughout the entire height.

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The jagamohan which was built at the same time as the tower, the two forming the original temple scheme, is in plan not the customary square, but an oblong measuring 72 feet long and 56 feet side. Its lower story or *bada* is 34 feet high and like the tower is composed of a series of recessed chases. Above this square portion rises the substantial roof in the shape of a pyramid, the lower part square and stepped, the upper part round and fluted, the whole attaining the height of 100 feet from the ground. The additional halls of the nat and bhoga mandirs, although belonging to a somewhat later date, are in much the same style as the jagamohan, and compose not inharmoniously with the architectural scheme as a whole except that they unduly prolong its line As already mentioned the interiors of these halls are plain single cells, the walls being entirely devoid of ornament, and the ceilings, composed of oversailing courses of masonry, are treated in an equally simple manner. Each hall however has a group of four massive piers in the centre to support the solid mass of the roof, and these have sculptured patterns on their shafts. (Plates XCII and XCIII) It is difficult to believe that the workmen who showed such restraint in the production of these austere interiors could be the same as those who were so profligate with their decoration on the outer walls of the same buildings. Not only did the artists produce on the exterior wall surfaces figure compositions of an intricate nature and absorbing in subject, but in every part the multiplicity of detail, the fertility of invention, the fantasy and caprice of the patterns, are astonishing And this plastic decoration is not unsystematic, the orderly manner in which it is applied, and the discipline employed in its distribution recall the foliated panelling, canopied niches, and spiralled nook-shafts of some of the Gothic cathedrals of Europe.

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Out of the infinity of forms which appear on the Orissan temples at this time one architectural feature emerges of unusual character. It is best described as a mullioned window, although so designed as to admit but little light and even less air. Openings for such purposes are not common in Indian temple architecture, the brilliant sunshine is reflected into the interior without any need for windows, the object being to restrain this searching light, not to encourage it, and to preserve that half shadow half darkness which gives these halls their religious solemnity. The Gothic cathedral, with more voids than substance, illustrates the other extreme, where light, and more light, was the architect's constant aim in a climate of low visibility. An Orissan temple window is devised on the simple principle of a rectangular opening filled with a row of uprights at close intervals, but the manner in which this scheme is decoratively handled converts it into a notable work of art. As a framework to the opening the carver indulged in a variety of mouldings, pilasters, and cornices, according to his fancy, but it was in the design of the uprights that he introduced the most delicate forms In the temples of lesser importance these mullions took the shape of graceful balusters, like small tapering pillars with moulded capitals and bases perfectly proportioned and skilfully fashioned. But in the larger temples, as for instance in the Lingaraja, each upright in addition to its upper and lower decoration, carried on its shaft a female figure, voluptuously modelled and languorously posed, the whole conception presenting an effect of exuberance evidently expressive of the luxuriousness prevailing in the existing social environment

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Yet however rich and splendid this plastic art on the walls of the Lingaraja appears, unquestionably the crowning achievement of this temple is the grand mass of the tower, which as a work of architecture is not unworthy of any age or people. It may not possess the shapely poise of a thirteenth century Gothic spire, or the refined tapering profile of a mosque minar, nor has it the firm repose of some of the mediaeval companili of Southern Europe, but as with all such productions it represents a supreme effort to attain height combined with a finished architectural appearance, and by means of its dignified proportions, balanced stability, and breadth of treatment this ideal has been accomplished.

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The other notable example of the middle period is the famous temple of Jagannath at Puri, an appreciably larger building than the Lingaraja, and the principal parts of it erected about a century later. There are records that it was originally built as a pillar of victory by Chora Ganga, the conqueror of Kalinga in 1030 A.D., but that it was not consecrated until A D. 1118. The probability is that on this site the ruler raised a commemorative column on the occasion of his conquest, but about A.D. 1100 its place was taken by the present structure. Built on the same principle as the Great Temple, at Bhubaneswar, and consisting of four edifices in one alignment, it first comprised the deul or sanctuary, and its assembly hall or jagamohan, in which condition it appears to have remained until the fourteenth or fifteenth centuries, when the nat and bhog mandirs were added. As now completed the extreme length of these four buildings in a line is 310 feet, with a width of 80 feet, while the tower is nearly 200 feet in height. Moreover as it stands on an eminence, it presents a singularly commanding appearance, its soaring deul providing an imposing landmark across the low-lying country for many miles around. This elevated position suggests that the Jagannath temple occupies the site of some still more ancient monument, not improbably the shrine of the Buddha's tooth at Dantapura, before that precious relic was transported to Ceylon.

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But except for its impressive proportions, the architectural effect of this temple is disappointing, as in its treatment it is merely an arid replica of its predecessor at Bhubaneswar Much of its inferiority is however due to certain extensive renovations which became necessary a century or more ago, when the original stone masonry decayed, owing probably to centuries of action by the sea air. Unfortunately these restorations appear to have been effected by means of solid applications of cement, which have made its close appearance heavy and lifeless, a mere hulk of what it was when first conceived. Yet in spite of its cement overlay, the tower still retains its imposing mass from which it is possible to see that Orissan architecture continued to be a moving and living art This is shown by the improved shape noticeable in its contours generally, and specifically by the overhang of the shoulder, which in this instance has been reduced to a more graceful line, giving its profile additional refinement and balance. As already mentioned two of the halls of the temple were added at a later date, and the ornamentation which so profusely adorns these structures is stiff and stylized, clearly implying a period when the style had begun to decline One of the halls, the nat mandir, a large building of some 80 feet side, has its ceiling supported by as many as 16 pillars in 4 rows of 4 each, the only real example of a hypostyle hall in Orissa.

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There are other features in the Jagannath temple at Puri, some of considerable significance and implying affinities of a widely separate kind. One of these concerns the character of its inner enclosure, for like the Lingaraja it stands within a spacious courtyard surrounded by a high wall, forming a rectangle 440 feet by 350 feet. Around the main building in the centre, distributed over the remaining area are some 30 or 40 edifices of various shapes and sizes, each a shrine or chapel, the whole representing the same system as that at Bhubaneswar, but in this instance as all the structures are grouped on higher ground, they approach still nearer to the Buddhist stupa tradition Another feature is connected with the outer enclosure, as there are three of these encircling walls, known poetically as the "Three Garlands", a reference to the custom, universal in India, of adorning divinities and high personages with wreaths of flowers. The outer wall 20 feet high, was added at a later date concentric with an inner one and containing a space 665 feet by 640 feet, having a gateway in the centre of each side. These gateways, although substantial structures with pyramidal roofs, bear no resemblance to the gopuram type of the southern style, but the principle of such architectural entrances, and the additional enclosed area, is analogous to the arrangement of pylons and *prakarams*, which about this time were becoming a characteristic of the Dravidian temple, seems more than a coincidence.

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The third period or "Later" style of Orissan architecture which flourished about 1200 A D , includes a number of temples, none of which is large, but all are remarkable for their rich and finished appearance. From the monumental compositions of the previous period to these moderately sized but profusely decorated examples of the builders' art implies a definite change in values, a condition already observed in connection with the evolution of the Dravidian style when the immense pagodas of the Cholas were succeeded by the smaller, more intimate, and exquisitely ornamented halls of the Vijayanagar period There are at least a dozen temples at Bhubaneswar representing this later phase of the Orissan style, the majority of which consist of the two basic parts only of the temple type, the deul and its jagamohan. On the other hand the most striking of all, the Ananta Vasudeva, resolves itself into a reduced copy of the much larger and previous type, as it comprises the full complement of four buildings all in one line, although in this instance, too, the nat and bhog mandirs both appear to have been a subsequent addition. The largest example of the "Later Period", it has a length of 125 feet with a breadth of 40 feet, and its tower is 68 feet high, while the whole structure being built on a substantial plinth, a rare feature in most of the temples of this group, it presents a reasonably impressive effect. (Plate LXXXI).

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Had it been finished in the manner in which it was begun, nothing would have exceeded the grace and elegance of another temple of this period, the Rajarani, probably one of the last of its class to be built As it is, the *deul*, which is practically complete, displays a refinement in its curves and contours denoting not only an advance in the art of composition, but an appreciation on the part of the craftsmen of a more subtle feeling for form. Much of the improved effect has been obtained by a change in the distribution of the decorative elements comprising the tower, so that a more fluent volume and mass is the result No one who has seen the Rajarani temple, and also those of the Khajuraho group shortly to be described (Chapter XXII), can fail to notice the similarity in the shape of this particular Orissan deul, and the sikharas of the Central Indian type, which strike a new note in this aspect of temple design The tower of the Bhubaneswar example is remarkable for the beauty of its formation, but the attached jagamohan, mainly because it has been left in an unfinished condition, consists of much that is interesting. Apart from its promise of artistic qualities equal to that of the deul, one can see from the designs on its walls, some merely inscribed, others blocked out, but all incomplete, the manner in which the architectural decoration was effected. As in all these productions in the preparation of which the work has been interrupted, the toolmarks are so fresh and clear that the human element seems still to linger, implying that the craftsman is shortly returning to his task. But from this example, and also another of the group, the Siddhesvara, it is clear that the practice of the Orissan builders was to block out the structure in the mass, leaving its surfaces "boasted" awaiting final treatment with the sculptor's chisel. The small temple of Siddhesvara is notable in this particular, for it appears as a relatively plain building, yet it is quite obvious that it was the intention to elaborate all its parts with carved decoration, but for some reason, probably financial, this never matured.

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There is one other factor in the design of the Rajarani temple, which is a further indication that this example is a departure from all the others of the group. It will be seen that the plan of the sanctuary, although in its general configuration is in the shape of a square, has both its exterior and interior surfaces so elaborately recessed that it becomes almost circular in appearance. Moreover the plan is not aligned so that its sides are in the same plane as the rest of the building, but the whole structure is placed diagonal to it. Such an arrangement is an exception in the plans of the Orissan temples, where the sides of all the buildings are in the same alignment. But, as will be shown later, this setting of the plan of the sanctuary diagonally to the plan of the hall in front of it was not infrequently adopted in the temples of other parts of the country, and one which was speedily developed as it produced an added variety and contrast of effect in the elevational appearance of the structure as a whole. The Rajarani temple was an early example of the diagonal treatment in its plan, and may have pointed the way to the employment of the same principle in the other regional styles.

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There now remains the grandest achievement of this Eastern School of architecture, the Temple of the Sun at Koṇārak, standing entirely by itself, some twenty miles in a north-easterly direction along the sea-coast from Puri Built in the reign of King Narasimha-deva (1238-64), it has become a deserted ruin, a great mass of masonry, rising like a pyramidal mound above the sand-dunes, and forming from the sea a prominent landmark known as the Black Pagoda. Although so much of it has fallen, enough remains to make a conjectural reconstruction possible, and to show it in its finished state. Abul Fazl, who was the Emperor Akbar's official historian, and who appears to have seen the temple before it became a complete ruin, eulogizes it, about 1585 in the Ain-i-Akbari as follows : "Even those whose judgement is critical and who are difficult to please stand amazed at the sight." Yet it is doubtful whether it ever actually attained the appearance as depicted in Plate LXXXVIII for there are fairly clear proofs that it was never quite completed as before the ponderous stones that formed the upper portion of the tower could be put into position, the foundations began to give way. Some of the large sculptured blocks intended for the summit lie at the foot, not only unbroken, but unbruised, whereas had they fallen from such a height they could not fail to show signs of serious damage or fracture. The conception of this temple was that of a genius, but its colossal grandeur outstripped the means of execution, for its materialization was beyond the capacity of its builders, its scale was too great for their powers, and in the constructional part they failed. It was, however, a magnificent failure, for without unduly straining the imagination, it is possible to see even in its ruin, that it was one of the finest architectural efforts the Indian master-mason ever made.

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The temple of Konarak is dedicated to Surya, the Sun-god, to whom some of the largest and most remarkable temples have been consecrated, as for instance Martand (9th century) in Kashmir (Chapter XXXI), and Modhera (1026 A.D.) in Gujarat (Chapter XXIV). In its design the Orissan temple is in a class by itself for several reasons. Firstly, it represents the crystallised and accumulated experience of several hundred years of this type of temple building, so that no longer is it a fortuitous range of separate structures, as in the Lingaraja and Jagannath examples, but a reasoned and systematic co-ordination of its parts into an architectural unity. Where another hall is needed, as the *nat mandir*, this, although detached, in order to conform to the demands of the ritual, is nevertheless made to accord with the scheme as a whole. The Temple of the Sun at Konarak therefore illustrates in every aspect the fulfilment and finality of the style. Further, in its conception the building is unique on account of its supremely imaginative character. The traditional representation of the Sun-god visualizes this deity standing in Time's winged chariot urging on his team of seven horses, with which he blazes his way through the heavens. These he unyokes at sunset so that

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When he has loosed his coursers from their station
Straightway Night over all spreads her garment

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(*Rigveda*, I, 115, 4).

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This spirited allegory moved the designers to translate it into temple form, to realize it as a great spectacle in stone, the building to be fashioned like a *ratha* or wheeled car being whirled along by the seven horses of the sun. The base of the structure therefore is an immense terrace with 12 giant wheels (Plate LXXXIX), each nearly ten feet high fixed on either side, to simulate the vehicle of the god, and in front is a wide flight of steps, its sides supported by seven richly caparisoned steeds, rearing and straining in their harness as they strive to drag its great bulk along. On the high platform thus formed the temple building was raised in two conjoined parts, consisting of a large hall or *jagamohan*, 100 feet side and 100 feet high, and a still larger *deul* or tower rising to the great height of some 225 feet from the ground. At the base of this deul three subsidiary shrines were attached, with outer staircases leading up to spacious recesses each containing a life-sized but minutely carved chlorite statue of the deity. To complete the scheme, facing the main flight of steps the *nat mandir* was erected, a detached structure, square in plan and with a pyramidal roof, the whole on a high plinth, while placed around were a number of artistic and structural accessories such as a free-standing pillar, a refectory, several supplementary shrines, and separate groups of statuary, all enclosed within a courtyard 865 feet by 540 feet, having entrance gateways in three of its sides. Finally, to add to the richness of its appearance, as well as to the mysterious nature of its ceremonial the builders have filled out the pattern of this great structural composition by means of sculptured forms and intricate designs applied without stint to its immense surfaces, some of outstanding beauty, but others of such a shamelessly erotic character that they have no parallel in any known building.

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Such are the bare outlines of the principal components of this stupendous undertaking, which the superb craftsmanship of the artisans at that period almost succeeded in completing. But, as if the powers of good resented the perpetuation of the evil it portrays, it now lies a colossal ruin, all that remains moderately intact being the *jagamohan* or assembly hall, as a record of the character of the whole (Plate LXXXIX, Fig. 1). In its damaged condition this temple recalls the torso of some famous classical statue, shorn of its limbs, battered and broken, half buried in the sand, but still identifiable as a noble work of art. The portion that is preserved, the assembly hall, although considerably injured, is a notable architectural production. At first sight presenting an appearance of infinite elaboration, reduced to its lowest terms it resolves itself into a comparatively simple formation as it consists of two main elements, a *bada* or cubical portion, and its pyramidal superstructure or roof (*pida*). The surfaces of the *bada* are in recessed chases, so that its plan is not a plain square, and on the same principle the shape of the roof, although it has the form of a pyramid, its outlines are interrupted by angles, projections, and curves, presenting a scheme of varied complexity. The proportions of this edifice are correspondingly simple, as the main cornice marks the centre of the structure, the width of the *bada*, or cubical part, is twice its own height, and the entire width of the building is equal to its altitude. Other dimensions are similarly uninvolved. There are three doorways, one in the middle of each of its free sides, each approached by a flight of steps, but the eastern or principal entrance is a noble conception. Leading up to the main portal is a wide stairway, flanked by the rearing and straining horses, three on one side and four on the other, the whole composition an inspiration, splendidly realized.

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Much of the imposing appearance of this great structure has been obtained by the treatment of the pyramidal roof. The square portion consists of three tiers diminishing as they ascend, the wide spaces between each stage opening out into platforms for the accommodation of a number of boldly sculptured groups of statuary of heroic size, all performing on musical instruments, an innovation which gives it a vivid human vitality. Each of these tiers is stepped, the two lower with six, and the uppermost with five string courses producing a pattern of horizontality of the utmost architectural value. Above this the apex of the pyramid is gathered up into a massive circular finial, fluted, curved, and moulded, a subtle contrast to the square portion below. The principle on which the roof was designed and executed is similar to that in all the buildings of this region, but in this instance it is elaborated, enlarged, and improved with admirable results. The interior of the hall is now inaccessible, as it has been permanently sealed up in order to preserve it from further subsidence, but it consisted of one large single cell, sixty feet side, the ceiling supported by four huge solid piers, and the whole of its walls, in marked contrast to the rich plastic treatment of its exterior surfaces, severely plain. At the far end of the hall a vestibule led to the sacred cella, a square chamber of twenty-five feet side enclosed within the solid mass of masonry forming the *deul* or tower. This great tower has disappeared, except for its foundations, so that although its general dimensions may be conjectured with a certain degree of exactitude, no record of its style is known. It is however tolerably clear that it followed the usual shape and proportions of the Orissan type of tower, and in view of the progressive character of the rest of the building, it was probably an advance on the Lingaraja form, appertaining more in its volume to that of the Jagannath example at Puri, but with its curves of the refined and fluid order of the Rajarani temple at Bhubaneswar.

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Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c28: Chapter XXI: The Northern or Indo-Aryan Style: Orissa (A.D. 800 to 1250)

Chapter XXI: The Northern or Indo-Aryan Style: Orissa (A.D. 800 to 1250)

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