Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c29: Chapter XXII: The Northern or Indo-Aryan Style (continued): The Khajuraho Group, Central India (A.D. 950 to 1050)
Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c29
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Chapter XXII: The Northern or Indo-Aryan Style (continued): The Khajuraho Group, Central India (A.D. 950 to 1050)
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THE NORTHERN OR INDO-ARYAN STYLE (*continued*)
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ONE of the most refined and finished manifestations of Indian architecture in the Indo-Aryan style is to be found in a group of temples at Khajuraho in Central India. Moreover these buildings not only represent the mode in such an elegant form, but the majority of them, in spite of the fact that they have weathered the climate for a thousand years, and withstood neglect for nearly as long, are still well-preserved and in good condition. Having now been deserted for several centuries, no regular ritual is held within their halls, so that the spectacle of such noble monuments standing isolated and meaningless amidst fields and jungle is a moving one. Situated a hundred miles south-east of the town of Jhansi, these temples are over thirty in number, most of them occupying a site measuring approximately a square mile in extent, and when first built appear to have been disposed rather unsymmetrically around the borders of an ornamental sheet of water. Unlike those of Orissa, the Khajuraho temples do not illustrate a development over a long period of time, for, as shown by inscriptional evidence, they were all erected within the relatively narrow interval of a hundred years, from about A.D. 950 to 1050. They imply therefore a brilliant episode in the history of Indian temple architecture, rather than the progressive course of a concerted movement, representing one of those rare occasions when religious emotion and unstinted patronage coincided with a flowering of artistic genius to find expression in a group of buildings of the highest aesthetic standard and the utmost significance.
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These temples were built during the supremacy of the Chandela rajas, a dynasty noted for its structural productions, although their buildings partook very largely of undertakings of a utilitarian character, such as reservoirs and similar public works No doubt this royal house extended its patronage to the temples of Khajuraho, but their grouping appears to have been due not so much to dynastic encouragement, as to a combined sacerdotal impulse of a marked tolerant and comprehensive nature, as they represent different beliefs, several of them being Saivite, others Vaishnavite, and some Jaina. The congregating of a number of temples on one site is not uncommon in India, but an assembly on such a scale as those at Khajuraho implies some special object It seems not improbable that a powerful hierarchy which then existed conceived the idea of founding a central seat of religious life and learning, not monastic, as this finds little favour in the systems of either the Brahmans or the Jains, but in an organization of religious orders, not unlike that planned by the Oratorians in Italy in the sixteenth century. In any case, whatever the ideal it stimulated the building art to a remarkable degree as these buildings amply testify. But as at Konarak in Orissa, it is proved by the carvings on several of these temples, that the same sinister ritual which degraded that monumental conception also prevailed at Khajuraho, and it is possible that the religious community concerned suffered the same fate. Such may be one of the explanations for the almost complete absence of life within the precincts of these beautiful buildings, and their disuse over such a long period of time.
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The Khajuraho temples have a definitely individual architectural character, different from that in any other part of the country. In the first place instead of being contained within the customary enclosure wall, each stands on a high and solid masonry terrace, the intention being no doubt to detach itself in this manner from its temporal environment On the broad platform thus produced, each temple has been erected, not as a number of conjoined buildings, but as one unified structure, all its parts so incorporated as to form a compact architectural synthesis. None of them is of any great size, the largest is only slightly over a hundred feet in length, so that they are by no means imposing edifices but they rely for their appearance on their elegant proportions, graceful contours, and rich surface treatment The method by which such admirable results were attained becomes evident on analysis, as those who built them were obviously experienced in the practical requirements of the structure, and accordingly began with the plan (Plate XCIV, Fig. 6). On the ground this took the general shape of a Latin cross with its long axis from east to west, the sole entrance being on the east, at the foot of the cross. This shape was divided into three main compartments, namely the cella or *garbhagriha*, an assembly hall or *mandapa*, and an entrance portico or *ardha-mandapa*. Supplementing these are the *antarāla* or vestibule to the cella, and, in the more developed examples, the transepts or *maha-mandapa*, together with a processional passage around the cella.
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With the plan so simply and logically projected, the formation of the elevation presented no difficulties, and the designers showed great intelligence and aesthetic knowledge by the manner in which they carried out their handiwork. The mass, or volume comprising the Khajuraho temple-type moves in an upward direction, its trend is towards height, in much the same way as an aspiring quality is a characteristic of the Gothic church Raised up on its lofty terrace, the building resolves itself into three main parts, consisting of an emphatically high basement story, above which are the walls and openings of the interior compartments, while over all is a grouping of roofs culminating in the tall and graceful *sikhara* To accentuate the soaring impulse there are a number of pronounced vertical projections, which not only lead the eye upwards, but produce a variety of vertically inclined and well-disposed passages of light and shade The architectural treatment of these three main elements forming the elevational aspect of the structure shows consummate skill. A rich and diverse series of mouldings lightens the substantial proportions of the plinth, the spreading base of which seems to grip firmly the pavement of the terrace, like the roots of a symmetrical and well-grown tree. The intermediate portion of the building above this, comprising the central feature of the scheme and enclosing the halls of the interior is handled in an equally artistic manner. Where the remaining surfaces of the structure are solids, here the builder has introduced his voids, consisting of a horizontal range of window openings, thus, bringing in light and air, and at same time throwing a vivid band of intense shadow athwart the whole composition. There are few more attractive conceptions in the field of Indian architecture than these lovely balconied openings, and few, either structurally or aesthetically, more appropriate to their purpose
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There is however another outstanding feature on this central zone-of-the-temple exterior, a decorative motif and one which fills in the wall spaces between the openings mentioned above. This takes the form of two, and sometimes three, parallel friezes, conjoined and following the alternate projections and recesses of the walls and carried round the entire building. Peopled with groups of statuary moulded in high relief, and in dimensions rather less than half life-size, these friezes present a moving pageant and never-ending procession of lifelike forms, shapely in appearance, exquisite in workmanship and of inexhaustible interest. On one temple alone, that of the Kandariya Mahadeo, the figures thus depicted are six hundred and fifty in number, and each building accommodates a similar community in proportion to its size (Plate XCI) Some of the figures are apparently ideal human beings, while others are divine personages, but all are in elegant attitudes and some are posed with a Hellenic grace recalling the rhythmic forms on a classic vase. Unlike the sombre saints who look down from Gothic niches, those on the walls of the Khajuraho temples are of a warm and gladsome nature, living in a happy golden age, when time was one long sequence of pleasurable experiences. With such an animated throng ever present on these structures it is not remarkable that the architecture pulsates with a human vitality not ordinarily found in the building art.
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Each on the main compartments of the temples was distinguished by a separate roof, the smallest and lowest being the portico, next in height came the central hall, the two sweeping up in line of mass to the tall shape of the tower or *sikhara*, surmounting the whole. Unlike the Orissan type which is pyramidal, the Khajuraho roofs are domical in contour, but their surface texture in horizontal strata is much the same The external appearance of these temples owes not a little of its grace to the grouping of these roofs and their centripetal movement towards the spire, suggestive of the rising peaks of a mountain range converging on to the highest pinnacle. This effect, however, has not been obtained without an occasional overcrowding of its parts, as for instance where the roof of the mandapa impinges on the sikhara, but this defect is of minor consequence where all is so well-ordered and coherent.
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The touchstone of the Indo-Aryan type of temple is the design of the spire, and the examples of this dominating feature at Khajuraho are the most refined and elegant of their kind. The graceful shape of these sikhara has been effected in two ways, on the one hand by the subtle lineament of the main curves, and on the other by the rhythmic disposal of the subsidiary members attached to them. It is only necessary to compare the Khajuraho form of sikhara with the Orissan type to realize the beauty of the former with its flowing profile. In the first place the contours at Khajuraho are more taut and tenuous, the tempo of the lines is accelerated as they mount up in a more decided incline But the principal refinement is obtained by the design and distribution of the miniature turrets or *urusringas*, which it was the practice to superimpose on the sides to break up the mass. The manner in which the craftsmen at Khajuraho played, and even juggled with these elements in the formation of the sikhara is proof of a long apprenticeship to this kind of work. The principle is illustrated in Plate XCIV. In the simpler examples the builders began by attaching a fairly large flattened half-spire against the lower portion of each side of the central structure, the quoins of which were continued down until stopped by another miniature turret or *urusringa* at the junction of the tower with the substructure. With this as a basis, in the larger examples the scheme was elaborated by means of each of these attachments being duplicated and even triplicated about the lower part of the structure, as are turrets around a Gothic steeple. It will be readily seen that such a system resulted in more melodic outlines to the volume, the fluency thus achieved adding fresh beauty to its strength.
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Turning now to the interiors of the Khajuraho temples it will be at once realized that these were designed strictly according to the requirements of the ritual, combined with the necessity for a certain economy of space There is only one entrance, that on the east, and this is approached by a singularly tall flight of steps rising steeply owing to the excessive height of the plinth, but increasing its dignity. The doorway, like some of the other openings in the interior, has its lintel festooned with a cusped archway or foliated form of strut, so finely fashioned as to appear more like ivory-carving, or even a hanging drapery than chiselled stone. Through this doorway one enters a passage or porch, which expands into a rectangular portico or *ardha-mandapa*, the whole with open sides, the ceiling carried on pillars, and sloping seat-backs or *asana* as dwarf walls Opening out of this portico is the main hall or *mandapa*, a moderately large square compartment with four pillars in the centre supporting the beams of the roof. (Plates XCII and XCIII). On each side of this hall extending laterally, are the transepts or *maha-mandapa* connecting with the balcony windows of the exterior. The furthermost side of the main hall communicates with the vestibule or *antarala*, a shallow passage with a large moonstone step (*chandrasila*) leading up to the ornate doorway of the cella, an opening which repeats in its festooned lintel the design of the main entrance.
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Contrasting with the excessively plain treatment of the Orissan interiors, the halls of the Khajuraho temples are richly decorated with sculpture As the principal compartment is the mandapa this exhibits several notable features, functional and ornamental. The average size of the mandapas at Khajuraho is only 25 feet square, no great space to cover with a roof, but the weight of the domical mass of masonry above, and the relatively elementary structural system employed, made it difficult to achieve in a single span. The method adopted of oversailing courses could only be self-supporting within certain limits, so that a process of under-pinning became necessary. This took the simplest and most natural form of four pillars, one at each corner, with four beams in the shape of a square framework under the ceiling; on the same principle by which he would prop up his wooden hut, so the Indian mason supported the main roof of his temple. Yet this plan is structurally sound, and he proceeded to make it artistically beautiful, for the manner in which sculpture was applied over its surfaces is superb. Those portions specially selected for treatment were the capitals of the pillars, the architrave, and the ceiling itself. The capitals are structurally of the bracket order, but so overlaid with ornament and figure-sculpture that this is obscured. Above and below are the contorted forms of grotesque dwarfs, curious atlantean creatures without which no capital in the fully developed Indo-Aryan style is complete, and they are accompanied by rampant gryphons at the angles But in the spaces between these strange and unearthly beings, as a foil to their forbidding appearance, are inserted female figures of enchanting grace and loveliness, either in the act of dancing or posed in some flexuous attitude, each a finished statuette in itself carved out of a separate slab of stone and morticed into sockets prepared for its reception. If this is an effort to express the triumph of beauty over ugliness, or to contrast the bestial with the spiritual, then the artist has fully succeeded in his object. (Plate XCIII, Fig. 1).
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The substantial architraves above these capitals are also highly decorated with figure compositions of an animated nature, but it is in the design and execution of the ceilings which they support that the sculptor has exercised the greatest ingenuity and artistic skill. Here it is that we come into contact with a portion of the temple structure, which in many of the regional developments, has been regarded as a subject for the most intricate plastic embellishment. In every part of the country it seems to have been imperative that the ceiling of each compartment in the temple should be elaborately patterned, and, as will be shown later, in certain circumstances to overlay its curved surfaces with scenes of imagery and allegory of timeless origin and profound meaning. And more often than not the interior of the temple is so lacking in light that these upper portions of the halls, although so exquisitely sculptured are in deep shade or even in complete darkness None the less it was the practice to include these richly carved ceilings in the temple interior, many of which by their character and technique seem to indicate that the preparation of these and the fixing of them in position were in the hands of a separate guild of craftsmen who specialised in this particular kind of work.
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In this ceiling treatment of the Khajuraho temples the shallow dome over the central compartment or *mandapa* was that on which the finest work was produced, although even the porches and outlying chambers were often equally elaborated. The design selected was usually a geometrical one, an arrangement of intersecting circles, which on plan form a combination of cusps or quatrefoils, but in section are a series of semi-spherical recesses, or shell-shapes, with a long richly-carved pendant dropping from the centre of each. In a typical example of one of these ceilings the entire surface is a swirling pattern of circles and semi-circles recalling stones thrown into a pool. It is a method not unlike stalactite vaulting, but composed almost entirely of spherical instead of octagonal elements, and there are also observable some of the principles employed in Gothic fanvaulting, although worked out to a much smaller scale. Each stone of these ceilings was carved separately, according to a stencilled pattern, and the whole composition fitted together temporarily on the ground Then, when all the parts were complete, and the jointing perfected, its components were hoisted up on to the roof and dropped into position one by one so that they interlocked, each course supporting that above it. The complex nature of the designs, the patience and skill required to carve, fit, and finally assemble each piece in its correct position, while in the end the entire work is invisible on account of the darkness of the compartment it covers, is an illustration of one of those insoluble problems occasionally found in the building art of the country.
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The main group of temples at Khajuraho, consisting of at least a dozen buildings, is that to the north-west of the site, where they are arranged in two lines, with both Vaishnavite and Saivite shrines standing side by side. In some instances the dedication is a matter of doubt, while the designation of a few may have been subsequently changed, Each of these two lines of structures consists of one large temple, with others slightly smaller alongside, and, for the purposes of study, each has been given a serial number.¹ The largest of the entire series is the Siva temple of Kandariya Mahadeo (No. 3) the first of the most westerly line, and its dimensions are 109 feet in length, 60 feet in width externally, with a height of 116½ feet above the ground or 88 feet above its own floor. (Plate XCI) Its plan is that of a double-armed cross, as not only is it provided with transepts to the mandapa, but it has another pair with windows to give light to the processional passage, while there is also a similar aperture for illuminating this corridor in the rear The compartments of the interior are six in number consisting of the portico, main hall, transepts, vestibule, sanctum, and ambulatory. These arrangements affect very considerably the shape and architectural appearance of the exterior, which is an effective combination of lines and masses, bold projections being balanced by receding bays, the whole being held together by a well-devised system of horizontal passages of carving. Standing on a broad terrace with ample space all round, the base is formed of a plinth thirteen feet high sloped rapidly upwards by means of a succession of prominent stringcourses. This sloping substructure is surmounted by a kind of dado supporting the massive inclined seat-backs or *asana*, above which appear the window openings divided up by pillars, with the wide eave, or *chajja*, overhanging the whole. Over each of these eaves rises an elaborate gable formation blending itself in the array of turrets leading up to the roof. Apart from the masterly composition of these major parts there is over the whole of this building a vibrant sensibility produced by the rich and colourful texture of its gallery of sculptured forms.
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¹ *Archaeological Survey of India*, Cunningham, Vol II, 1871.
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There are two other temples at Khajuraho planned on the same principle as the Kandariya, with double transepts, but they are both one-sixth less in size. These are the Siva temple of Visvanath (No. 7), and the Vishnu temple of Chaturbhuj (No. 10), the former measuring on the ground 87 feet by 46 feet, and the latter 85 feet by 44 feet. Both appear to have had small supplementary shrines at each corner of their platforms, so that they are examples of the *panchayatana*, or five-shrined type of temple. On the Vishvanath temple there is an inscription which records that it was built about 1000 A.D. Two other temples of a fair size are the Vishnu temple of Devi Jagadambi (No. 5) measuring 77 feet by 50 feet, and that of Chhatr-ko-patr (No. 6) dedicated to Surya, the Sun-God, measuring 87 feet by 58 feet, both of which have only one pair of transepts, and are on plan and in elevation very elegantly proportioned. The Devi Jagadambi is a good example of the simpler type of temple-design, as it has only four compartments, the ardha-mandapa or portico consisting of only one chamber, instead of two, and there is no processional passage round the cella.
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The Jain temples grouped together on the south-east of the site are some six in number, in varying states of preservation, and as a whole their architectural character differs but little from the Brahmanical examples. Their only [Figure: Fig 2 Osia, Marwar · Temple of Surya , c 10th century]
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Delhi. Temple pillars of the 8th and 9th centuries re-erected in the cloisters of the Qutb Mosque
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Fig 1
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divergence from this type is in the almost complete elimination of any voids in their elevation, or anything resembling the window openings which are such pronounced features in the temples of the other groups. The result is that the absence of these striking elements causes the external appearance of the Jain temples to be somewhat monotonous, a condition which the sculptor has tried his best to relieve by elaborating the parallel friezes of statuary. These rows of figures, having now no architectural interruptions, dominate the entire scheme being continuous right round the structure, with portions projected like buttresses at intervals in an attempt at variety. These projections are carved into the shape of pillared niches enshrining images of special sanctity, with the occasional introduction of a kind of miniature balcony having sloping balustrades (*asana*) behind which is a group of small figures, a conceit more fanciful than architectural. The most complete example of the Jain group is the temple of Jinanath (No. 25), an oblong building measuring externally 60 feet long and 30 feet in breadth, with a projected portion at each end, that on the east forming the entrance porch. One oblong hall also forms the interior, within which are two compartments, comprising a pillared portico in front, and an enclosed cella beyond, leaving a wide processional passage all round the entire hall. Except that it is laid out in this manner to suit the requirements of the Jain ritual, the architectural treatment of this temple follows much the same principles as the Hindu examples.
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There is one ruined shrine at Khajuraho, standing a little apart from the Jain group, but evidently belonging to that creed, which has attracted considerable attention on account of what may be described as the Attic beauty of its constituent parts. (Plate XCV). A building in this condition, like the trunk of a mutilated figure, sometimes acquires undue merit for the sole reason that it is a fragment, the remains of something entirely great, but there is little doubt that the Ghantai temple when complete was a gem of its kind, evidently the handiwork of a group of the most accomplished craftsmen of the time. It consists now of merely a cluster of some twelve pillars, each over 14 feet high, standing on a moulded plinth 45 feet by 25 feet, and supporting a flat roof, the whole originally having been enclosed by walls. What is left bears some slight resemblance to the portico and cella in the Jinanath temple on the same site, but the brackets on the pillar shafts, the flat roof, and its detached position seem to suggest that it may have served some specific purpose in the Jain ceremonial. In its dismantled condition one can only admire the elegance of its pillars and the richness of the carved doorway. Some of the pillars are most gracefully proportioned, tall slender shafts, octagonal below and circular above, clasped around at intervals with girdles of delicate carving, and surmounted by an appropriate bracket capital.
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South of this Jain group, near the Kurar Nala, are two Brahmanical temples, one of which called the Kunwar Math (No. 30), and dedicated to Siva, is as fine as any of the Brahmanical examples on this site. It is 66 feet long by 33 feet broad externally and is composed of the usual five compartments, the whole being designed and decorated in the traditional Khajuraho style. Remains of other temples, evidently of the same period, have been located still further afield, as for instance at Jatkari 1½ miles south of Khajuraho, while even as far away as in Rewa State, there is the Vishvanatha temple at Maribag, a small example but clearly of the same type. It is however in the principal group of these buildings as seen at Khajuraho itself that interest mainly centres, for in its deserted courts the spirit of the time still seems to linger, not only in its architecture but in the multitude of silent yet moving forms on its temple walls, depicting a race of people who appear to belong to another world—a world of sensuous mystery, where sober reality is unknown.
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REFERENCES
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Cunningham, A , *Archaeological Survey of India*, Vol. II, 1864-65. Griffin, Sir Lepel, *Famous Monuments of Central India*, 1886.