Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c42: Chapter XXXV: The "Pagodas" of Burma
Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) c42
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Chapter XXXV: The "Pagodas" of Burma
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THE historical development of the building art in Burma falls into three periods, the first of which may be referred to as the "Early Phase," beginning from approximately the 2nd century A.D. and continuing until the 8th or 9th century. This was followed by a period when the architecture of the country assumed such a character and impressiveness that it becomes entitled to the designation of the "Classical Phase," and which flourished from the 9th to the 13th centuries. From the ending of this phase to the present day the country has reverted to a more intimate form of architectural expression, akin to a folk art, executed chiefly in wood in a very distinctive style, and which may be suitably defined as the "Pagoda" period
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Of the first of these developments, namely the "Early Phase," although it is known that a form of the building art existed at the historical centres of Thaton is Pegu the capital of a Mongolian tribe known as the Mons or Talaings, and at Prome the capital of another tribe, the Pyu, definite traces of the mode that then prevailed have disappeared. Partly on account of the destructive nature of the climate especially in the deltaic region, and partly owing to the continuance of devastating wars, the actual architectural remains of this period, which covered the earlier centuries of the first millennium, are so scanty as to be negligible. From the geographical position of these remains, however, and other evidences, it appears that a religio-cultural approach from Buddhist India, probably early in the Christian era, was made by sea. The land barriers between India and Burma at this period were of such a nature as to prevent ready intercourse, and accordingly the earliest historical material has been located in Lower Burma. Here, in the kingdom of the Pyus, with its seaport in the Gulf of Martaban, access to the country was obtained by means of the lower reaches of the Sitang river. The Pyu capital was at Srikshatra, near Prome, on the Irrawady, and was a city of considerable size and importance. It is described as being twenty-seven miles in circumference, with its walls and moat faced with glazed bricks, and that it contained over a hundred Buddhist monasteries richly furnished and endowed. There were twelve gates with pagodas at each corner, and mention is made of a great white image, one hundred feet high opposite the gate of the place.¹ Few traces, if any, of this city remain, yet, on the other hand several buildings have survived of a rather later date which may be regarded as a connecting link between the two periods, the Early and the Mediaeval, or, more precisely, a stage of transition leading up to the grand Classical Phase which followed.
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¹ Majumdar, R. C., *Hindu Colonies in the Far East*, p. 200.
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These earlier structures consist of three examples at Hmawza (Old Prome) dating from about the 10th century A D., and two others of the 11th century at Pagan. The former group comprises a stupa, the Bawbawgyi, and the two temples of Bebe and Leymethna. The stupa is a massive pile composed of a conical superstructure based on five diminishing terraces, the appearance of the whole recalling similar Buddhist monuments in India, and thus supporting the assumption that this architectural movement was derived from that country. But it is on the two temples mentioned above that interest chiefly centres, as although relatively small in size, they appear to have been the models for the much larger structures evolved slightly later at Pagan. The Leymethna is a type of temple gradually becoming characteristic of the religious architecture of the Buddhists at about this period in which the predominant features are a substantial central core of masonry surrounded by corridors with a portico projected from each of the four cardinal faces. Over the whole is carried the superstructure of the central block rising above the vaulted ceilings of the encircling corridors, so that the roofs of these form elevated terraces around the upper portion of the building.
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The two temples at Pagan, are those of Patothamya and of Nanpaya in the village of Myinpagan both comparatively early examples of temple building in Burma, as they appear to date from the 11th century, thus illustrating an intermediate phase of some significance. The Nanpaya temple, attributed to Manuha, the last king of Thaton when a prisoner of war, may therefore be a survival of the style of architecture favoured by the Mons or Talaings as this mode existed just previous to the great classical movement which subsequently developed on the same site. Constructed of stone masonry over a brick foundation it is decorated both inside and out with carving, that on the exterior being of a bold simple order confined to the pediments over the stone lattice windows, while in the interior the pillars are ornamented in low relief with figures of Brahma.
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With these two temples might be included a stupa, also at Pagan, that of Shivesandaw, as it is believed to date from the middle of the 11th century. Raised on five receding terraces, each designated by a legendary name, the stupa itself in its main outlines assumes a conical shape, its campaniform superstructure being divided into zones with the whole edifice crowned by a tapering finial ending in a stone *amalaka*.²
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² Archaeological Survey of India, Report 1926-27.
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All these comparatively early examples of Burmese architecture show Indo-Buddhist influences, but none more so than the general scheme of the Nanpaya temple, referred to above, which recalls at once, both in its plan and elevation, the lay-out of similar buildings of an earlier or corresponding period in parts of India. There is the rectangular body of the temple surmounted by a sikhara, with a portico in front, all according to the arrangements found in the early examples at Aihole in Dharwar, or Bhubaneshwar in Orissa, and yet with a difference. It is an Indo-Aryan temple conceived according to Burmese ideals, but that it is based on an Indian model there can be little doubt. The other temple at Pagan, the Patothamya, although designed on much the same plan, with rectangular body and projecting portico, differs, in its architectural treatment, yet all these structures, whether stupas or temples, while appearing to be fundamentally derived from Indian sources, disclose an attempt to effect in their design something original and indigenous, and in them are implied the racial sentiments of their creators.
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With the production of these earlier structures the stage began to be set for that remarkable display of religious building in Middle Burma which has been referred to as representing the Classical Period of the architecture of the country. The sacred structure comprising this great group are Buddhist of the Hinayana order, and are all found on one site, at Pagan, the capital of Burma from 819 A D, at which date it was founded, until 1286 when it fell, owing to invasion, and ceased to be the leading city of the state. Here, in this expansive but arid locality, the excessively dry climatic conditions being the main reason for their preservation, there grew up within a period of four centuries such an immense concourse of religious buildings that in number and size it can have few equals. This vast temple city, deserted in the thirteenth century, and ever since remaining a mere empty embodiment of its one time glory, must have consisted, when in its prime, of nearly a thousand "pagodas" of note, and which even now boasts of some eight hundred of these edifices, more than a few being monuments of exceptional proportions. Glistening brilliantly white in the searing sunlight, distributed over an area eight miles by five of bare and uninteresting landscape, these stupas and temples, bereft now largely of their spiritual content and priestly establishment, are a record of a time when Buddhism was foremost in the minds of the people, a condition which found expression in architecture of a grand order.
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The style of the monuments at Pagan is such as to give support to a credible theory. History has revealed that in the evolution of the building art throughout the ages, and viewed in its broadcast aspect, some mysterious law of compensation has manifested itself so that architecture has developed in alternating cycles the result of two major elemental forces. These are Repose on the one hand and Energy on the other. In Europe the outstanding instance of this evolution by balanced movement is the underlying ideal of Classical architecture signifying Repose, being succeeded by Gothic architecture implying Energy. In India and beyond, to a somewhat lesser degree, a similar sequence is observable, beginning with the Buddhist stupa, a monument static in principle and even earthbound in structure, followed by the Hindu temple, with its qualities of animation and aspiration as shown in the sikhara and other features expressive of beauty in energy. In the vast expanse of stupas and temples spread out over the plain at Pagan, these appear to illustrate that stage in the process of architectural development when the two forces were silently contending for supremacy, to culminate finally in the emergence of energy in the form of the more modern soaring pagoda.
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Such a prodigality of building production as that maintained at Pagan over so long a period during the early mediaeval era was largely the outcome of a flood of religious fervour, but not entirely so. The political circumstances were also favourable. Stimulated as the people were by the absorbing power of Buddhism, a state of being discernible in all the countries of Asia wherever the teachings of the Buddha penetrated, the religious movement in Burma was accompanied by another force. This was the realization in the country of a national consciousness, which eventually brought about a unification of the people, a consummation achieved by the administrative genius of king Anoratha (1044-1077), who succeeded in welding his subjects into a homogeneous whole To the combination of the two factors, religious and political, initiated and put into effect by this ruler in the middle of the eleventh century, these architectural records of Burma's mediaeval greatness are mainly due
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A study of this phase of Burmese architecture is simplified by the fact that all the examples are confined within a circumscribed area, and also that they resolve themselves almost entirely into two classes of structure consisting of (a) Stupas and (b) Temples. There are however two exceptions to this classification as a prominent building there, the Mahabodhi, is in imitation of the original Budh Gaya in Bihar, India, and another edifice, erected for the particular occasion by which it is designated and known as the Ordination Hall, both of which date from the thirteenth century. Of all the other buildings at Pagan, whatever their function, these are as completely expressive of the building art in Burma during the early mediaeval period as the Gothic cathedrals are typical of the same age in England And, in much the same manner as the architectural ideals of the cathedrals were partially derived from external source, so there is little doubt that the basic design of the stupas and temples of Middle Burma originally came from Buddhist India So much so that it has been authoritatively affirmed that the workmen who constructed these buildings were artisans actually brought from Bihar and Bengal for this specific purpose¹ On the other hand such a view leaves out two important modifying factors, namely in the first instance the un-Indian appearance of these buildings as a whole and their definitely Burmese treatment, while, secondly, it does not take into account the marked aesthetic temperament of the Burmese people themselves which, if anything, is even more pronounced than that possessed by those from whom they are presumed to have drawn their inspiration. In short the buildings at Pagan may be most nearly defined as fundamentally of Indian extraction but designed and adapted to conform to Burmese conceptions.
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¹ Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India, No. 56. *The Ananda Temple of Pagan* by Chas Duroiselle, M A (p 9)
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Although the monuments in this ancient temple-city are mainly of two kinds, the stupa and the temple, the architectural treatment of both is of much the same order, as the difference lies largely in that of intention The stupa is the shrine or reliquary, and is therefore in itself an object of worship, while the temple is planned with its interior arrangements consisting of galleries and corridors devised for religious ceremonial Such were the primary attributions of these two types of structure, but in the course of time the Buddhist temple began to combine the two purposes, where the central block took the form of a great shrine with interior corridors carried around it for circumambulation and processions. The colossal Buddhist monumental shrine and temple at Paharpur in Bengal, at the height of its glory in the eighth century, but now a mound of ruins, is believed to have been the model for this form of structure, although only in its underlying essentials, and not in its architectural scheme For in the buildings of Pagan, as in much of the structural art of Further India, is illustrated the contact of two diverse trends, that from India implying in its exterior mass the quality of convexity shared by the stupa and the sikhara, and that from the Far East revealing the characteristic concavity or inward sweep of the pagoda. In the whole of the architecture of this great region lying between India and China, exemplified particularly in the buildings of Burma, there appears to have been a continual struggle for supremacy between the bulbous mass of the orthodox stupa combined with the outward curve of the Indo-Aryan sikhara on the one hand, and the ascending attenuated outlines of what is ordinarily known as the Chinese pagoda on the other. In an effort to bring about an agreement between these two somewhat conflicting architectural formations, the Burmese master masons were helped very considerably by adopting a form of elongated finial as a summit to their pagoda "spires," instead of the lateral *harmika* of the Indian stupa, or the short thick-set *amalaka* of the Hindu temple. This finial or *hti*, as it is called, is an adaptation of the multiform umbrella, and makes an appropriate finish to the tenuous shape of the Burmese superstructure In spite therefore of the fact that although "Burma is surrounded by India, Tibet, China, Siam and the Malay States" and "the culture of its people, their art and monuments are almost exclusively derived from India"¹ a glance at the elevational effect of the architecture of the country will show that it owes not a little of its character, or at least its external appearance, to Far Eastern sources
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¹ "Revealing India's Past," India Society, London, 1939, Chapter VIII, Burma, by Chas Duroiselle, p. 325.
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Referring more specifically to the two kinds of structure that make up the majority of the buildings in Pagan, among the stupas one of the most typical examples is that known as the Mangalazedi, erected in 1274. The system of receding terraces, usually three of five in number, square in plan, and approached by stairways in the middle of each face, is the principle adopted in the generality of buildings of this order, and in the Mangalazedi stupa the five platforms comprising the high basement are excellently proportioned. Having circumambulated these processional paths, the pilgrim, on attaining the uppermost terrace, sees mounting up above him the circular stupa, concentrically moulded as its base, then rising in the form of a massive bell-shape to terminate in another ringed feature crowned by the slender pointed *hti*. To produce a rhythmic quality into the structure as a whole miniature replicas of the main stupa, in the form of ornamental turrets, break the outline of the angles, while bas-reliefs, are introduced at the various stages to enrich the entire composition and at the same time to attract the attention of the devout in the course of their progression around the shrine.
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Although in its architectural treatment far removed from the tumulous mound of the Indian stupa, the terraced superstructure is, in a more simplified form, observable in some of the examples in the Punjab, while the bell-shaped feature surmounting the whole, recalls, in certain of its aspects, the *anda*, or globular body of the historical original form which it was traditionally derived. Following in its main outlines those of a pyramid, giving the idea of a great mass in repose there is in the Mangalazedi stupa at Pagan a dignity, grace, and effect of permanence, reflecting no little credit on those responsible for its composition and construction.
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Of the other class at structure at Pagan, the temple, there are numerous excellent examples, such as the Gawdawpalin ("Throne of the Ancestral Hall," built in 1200), the Thatpyinnyu, the Shwegugyi, and the Sulamani, but the largest and by far the most imposing of all, besides being the noblest monument in the whole of Burma, is the Ananda Pagoda, founded by king Kyanzittha (1084-1112) in 1090 A.D. A description of this typical temple will give some idea, not only of the character of the group as a whole, but also of the architectural perceptions of the Burmese builders during this, their finest period.² In size alone this grand building is of no mean proportions as across its width including its porticos it measures 300 ft. each way, while the four-entranced enclosure within which it is centrally placed is a square of 570 ft. side. Its height too is impressive as from the ground level to the finial of its main spire it is over 160 ft. But its architectural effect lies not so much in its dimensions as in the disposition of its parts, in the fine projecting porticos, the graduated terraces of its roofs, and its ascending tapering volume as a whole. The underling intention of the building has also been carefully considered, while the relation of the exterior features to the arrangements within, leaves nothing to be desired. That some of the treatment of the external facades verge on the extravagant, if not inclined to be fantastic, may of course strike the eye of the occidental spectator, but it should be remembered that the entire appearance of the building was designed to please the taste of a people with whom form and colour have few limits, a people who revel in brilliant hues, and where curves and foliations, spirals and volutes are favourite elements in their ornamental patterns On plan the Ananda temple is cruciform in shape, its extended porticos reaching out to produce its four expansive arms, thus converting the whole into the semblance of a Greek cross. For the central portion of the structure is an immense solid square block of masonry above which rises the main sikhara or spire On each face of this middle core is a tall arched alcove, each enshrining a large standing figure of a Buddha, 31 ft. high, with hands raised to the breast in the pose of the *dharmachakra mudra*, while around the entire interior are carried two concentric corridors, their vaulted ceilings partly supporting the terraced ogee roofs above. (Plate CXXX).
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² Over 40 years ago, the author was permitted to reside for a week in the Ananda temple, as in those days other accommodation in Pagan was either unsatisfactory or unavailable There, in the benign presence of the colossal statue of the Buddha in the northern alcove, towering on its pedestal some 30 feet high, he was allowed to pass the nights, occasionally in wakeful moments to notice by the reflected light of the moon the ivory and nielloed eyes under their heavy overhanging lids ever watching over him with protective smile.
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In addition to the main spire which rises above the centre of the building, there are other supplementary pinnacles over the angles of the receding roofs and above the porticos, of significant design. For they represent two traditions, as some of these, imitating the central spire are derived from the Indo-Aryan sikhara, while others, particularly the lower and subsidiary turrets, and what may be termed, a pagoda variation of the stupa. The former are rectangular in section but have recessed chases and are patterned with horizontal ribbed mouldings as seen in the *deuls* or towers of the Orissan temples, India On the other hand the latter has a bell-shaped body, an attenuated development of the stupa. It is however in the exterior enrichments of the architectural scheme of the Ananda as a whole with which one is inclined to deal critically, as much of it is of an excessively flamboyant order and, although not decadent, is somewhat reminiscent of that later period of the building art in India, when the Nawabs of Oudh threw across the openings of their palaces foliated arches, and broke their skylines with florid merlons in an effort to attain a super-richness of effect But the Burmese architectural decoration was by no means debased, it was a form of genuine artistic exuberance which expressed itself plastically in cusped overdoors, wave-line pediments, and flowing, undulating shapes generally. That this method of decoration breaks up effectively the solid mass of the entire composition is conceded, but taken as a whole, it borders on the ultra-florescent, a reflection probably of the luxurious natural growth with which much of the country abounds.
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In the execution of these buildings brick masonry was almost employed, having the surface finished off with a coating of plaster painted dead white An inferential feature in the style of achitecture adopted, and also of the construction, is the introduction of that scientific method of bridging a space by means of the arch and vault As already explained Hindu India made little use of the arch, the builders in that country preferring for their purpose the lintel, or horizontal beam The appearance of such a constructional principle as the arch indicates that not all the building technicalities of the Burmese were derived from India, but none the less in other directions considerable borrowings are discernible. Although in the earlier examples of the arch those of a semi-circular order are not uncommon, in many of the Pagan buildings an arch of the pointed type is noticeable In shape these arches are not dissimilar in outline from those associated with the "Decorated" period of Gothic architecture in England, and with which it is a coincidence they are more or less contemporary. These arches in Burma are, in a sense, of the "true" variety, as they are built up of radiating voussoirs, although the bricks forming these members are not laid face to face in the accepted manner, but edge to edge, other instances of which may be seen in India at Budh Gaya in the 7th century,¹ and also earlier still at Ctesiphon in Iraq (Plate XXXII). It is probable that the size and shape of the bricks used in all these buildings may have conditioned the method by which they were constructionally applied Some of the archways in the Ananda temple are of spacious proportions, those in the porticos having a span of over 28½ feet and a height of 54 ft., while the fact that they have stood intact for more than eight and a half centuries is evidence of their strength and stability
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¹ Early in the fourteenth century, the Buddhists of Burma, hearing that the sacred shrine at Budh Gaya in Bihar was in a state of ruin, undertook the restoration of this monument, and accordingly despatched to India a party of Burmese masons for this purpose. It is possible therefore that the remains of a form of the true arch afterwards exposed in the interior of the building were introduced into the structure at the time of this restoration These arches are of the same type as those described above, and such as are used in the Ananda structure.
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With the fall of Pagan in 1286, owing to the invasion of the country by the forces of the Asiatic conqueror Kublai Khan, Burma politically disintegrated and the architectural movement as this flourished in the mediaeval temple city suffered accordingly. The end of the 13th century therefore marks the end also of the grand classical style of the building art of the Burmese, a style which was never revived. Decadent forms of it appear in some of the subsequent capital cities, such as at Mekkhaya, Ava, Sagaing, and Amarapura, but on account of inferior construction most of these structures are crumbling to ruin A considerable interval of separative rule then ensued, to be followed by a period of some four centuries when Burma appears to have turned away from India and to have been directed more towards the Far East for inspiration, its builders thus coming gradually under the influence of Chinese ideals, with the resultant change in their orientation, as exemplified by the recent architecture of the country. From the eighteenth century therefore there developed in the more important centres of Burma a style of architecture in which that distinctive feature commonly referred to as the "pagoda" element is predominant. The principal examples of the phase are the famous Shwe Dagon Pagoda at Rangoon, the Monasteries at Mandalay, as for instance the Queen's Golden Monastery, and more particularly, as it represents the secular architecture of the country at this period, the imperial city and palace at Mandalay
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Of the various forms of architectural expression which were evolved during the final period of the building art in Burma, as illustrated by the stupa, the monastery, and the palace, although the intentions of these three conceptions are widely different, and their functions are as dissimilar as their structural appearance, the architectural pattern underlying each class of building represents the same derivative sources, the same constructional experiences, and displays much the same aesthetic standards. None of these buildings can be described as great architecture when compared with the productions of the previous period, but nevertheless they are characteristic of the people, reflecting that light artistic temperament which shows itself in many aspects of their lives, from their instincts and aspirations to their customs and costumes
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That the Far Eastern influence in the buildings of this period is readily discernible will no doubt be admitted, but at the same time the racial reactions of the people have translated the forms communicated to them from the profoundly ancient civilization of China, into their own idiom. Perhaps the monument that is least effected by this change of direction in the minds of the Burmese from westward to eastward, and one that indicates in the most marked manner the connecting link between India on the one hand and China on the other, is the great Shwe Dagon Pagoda at Rangoon. This stupa-pagoda is not only a national monument, but is also fully representative of the spirit of Burma in its more modern phase. It enshrines within its reliquary eight sacred hairs of Gautama, and is recorded to be of very ancient foundation, although the present structure dates principally from the middle of the sixteenth century. From the ground level of the platform on which the stupa stands it rises to a height of about 370 feet, or a little higher than St. Paul's Cathedral, London. Its imposing appearance is however increased by the fact that it is poised on a mound, partly natural and partly artificial, shaped into two rectangular terraces, one above the other, each side, according to the customary orientation of this type of building, facing one of the cardinal points. In its architectural aspect, the Shwe Dagon Pagoda shows how far the Buddhist stupa, in the course of time and when removed from the country of its origin, has departed from the traditional mound-shaped pile to become a tall tenuous structure with only a suggestion of the tumulus body traceable in its composition Summarized it consists of a wide terraced base of 1355 feet circumference supporting a tapering spire of slender proportions, divided into zones by transverse concentric string-courses, and surmounted by a richly decorated finial or *hti*
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Such is the Shwe Dagon Pagoda concisely described as an example of the building art, but no account however brief Nepal Facade at Patan of this monument would be complete without a reference to the complex array of structures which cluster around its base, the entire scene presenting a picture of sheer orientalism unequalled in any other Asiatic structural creation. Crowding each side of the processional circuit are groups of tall pointed shrines, their superstructures imitating in miniature the central pile, and each treated as a pattern of tawdry glitter and fretted ornament A close study, however, reveals among this confusion of enrichment, here and there specimens of lovely handiwork in wood and metal, often painted and gilt, but the appearance as a whole is one of over-wrought exuberance, nevertheless not unattractive on account of its barbaric effectiveness. Surrounded by this medley of glass-mosaic, intricate carving, and gilded metal, the spectator can only stand amazed at the fervency of the people whose one aim is to show their devotion by embellishing in such a manner this supreme material manifestation of their religious belief.
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Nepal Bhatgaon Durbar Square
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Nepal Wood and Metal Window
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Nepal Durbar Square, Patan
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In much the same style as the shrines and chapels around the Shwe Dagon Pagoda are the monasteries especially those in the vicinity of Mandalay, which not infrequently are buildings of some magnitude. As with most structural edifices in Burma they are raised on a substantial ground story to preserve them from damp exudations and destructive pests. Solid round pillars of teak (a wood impervious to insects) and supports of masonry form this foundational stage, above which in strange contrast rise the light and fantastic wooden gables and decorative halls of the monastic building itself. Ornamenting the angular roofs are prominently projecting eaves and barge-boards overhanging commodious balconies which encompass most of the structure, all covered with intricate carving but at the same time acting as useful protective screens against the elements, either sun or rain. To enter the higher halls of the monastery a stairway with an immense voluted balustrade is provided, and this approach, together with other ground constructions such as parapets formed of massive masonry merlons attached to the foundation story, differs in a marked degree from the light wooden architecture above. Here it becomes evident that these solid masonry appendages are a survival of the grand classical style which characterised the mediaeval monuments of Pagan. They represent an almost forgotten memory of that supreme effort, and their substantial forms are in forced contrast with the elegant, animated but fanciful woodwork they support.
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One other notable example of the later phase of Burmese architecture, and of a very comprehensive order, is the city and palace of Mandalay.¹ This modern capital of the country, although not so important in its architectural aspect, is of considerable significance on account of its plan and general layout, as it represents the traditional conception of a royal residence, citadel, fortress, and city combined according to Far Eastern ideals. That Mandalay is a survival of the historical principles applied in planning a capital city in the orient is fairly clear, and receives confirmation from an interesting source. For Marco Polo’s description of Khan Baliq, the Pekin capital built by the great Mongol Kublai Khan in the thirteenth century, shows that Mandalay embodies the same essential features laid out on the same general plan, although founded some six hundred years later. This seat of the Alaungpra rulers of Burma was received and put into effect by King Mindon in 1857, and a striking view of its shape and the disposition of its parts may be readily obtained from Mandalay Hill, an eminence immediately overlooking the city on the north-west. Taken as a whole the layout is a system of concentric square enclosures the perimeter walls of which act as a series of protective barriers to the palace buildings occupying the centre. Surrounding the precincts of the palace itself was a high stockade of teak posts (since removed), while below the outer bastioned wall thus isolating the entire fortress is a deep and formidable moat seventy-five yards wide. Bridges over this moat, and doorways in the sides of each enclosure complete the general outline of the scheme.
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¹ Since very severely damaged in World War II
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The principal architectural features of this palace-fortress are to be found in the elaboration of the outer wall, and in the elevation aspect of the royal residence in the centre of the composition The outer wall, a square of 1¼ mile side, is built of red brick 26 feet high, battlemented above, and fortified with 48 bastions each surmounted by a graceful wooden pagoda. Five bridges span the moat and there are twelve gates, the whole forming an attractive picture mirrored in the waters which surround it. Right in the heart of these encircling walls the palace stands, a large group of singlestoried wooden buildings occupying a platform, more than a thousand feet at its greatest length and over 6 feet high, and presenting a spacious cluster of roofs, gables and parapets, with spire-like pagodas indicating the more important halls. Highest and most prominent of these pagodas is one in seven diminishing tiers, a slim and graceful structure some 256 feet in height, well-proportioned and profusely decorated with carving, gilding and colour. This pagoda marks not only the central and principal hall of the palace in which is situated the Lion Throne, but is also traditionally regarded as the axis of the universe around which all systems revolved. In addition to these pagodas, from each pointed roof and every angular gable rise small ornamental spires enriching the skylines of all parts in a manner typical of the style. The interiors of this palace are designed and decorated on the same general lines as the exterior, the walls and ceilings being covered with intricate wood carving, emphasized with gilding and striking schemes in colour. Appertaining more to a fine handicraft than to serious architecture, with portions sometimes trivial and added only for showiness of effect, in the entire range of structures forming this palace there are few outstanding features, nor is there any definite attempt at a unified whole. It is a composition of picturesque, colourful, grouping, an expression of that pulsatile quality that permeates every aspect of Burmese life. To the scenes of imperial pageantry staged from time to time by the Burmese Court, the palace at Mandalay provided an ideal background, but it can hardly be regarded as an example of the building art in its realistic and substantial form.
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REFERENCES
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*Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India*, No 56. The Ananda Temple at Pagan by Chas Duroiselle, Delhi 1937. *Guide of the Mandalay Palace* by Chas Duroiselle, Calcutta 1931. *Revealing India's Past*. The India Society, London 1939.