The Music and Musical Instruments of Southern India and the Deccan c11: Chapter VII
The Music and Musical Instruments of Southern India and the Deccan c11
- Language
- English
Chapter VII
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Of instruments—Decoration—Materials—How susceptible of improvement—Chief defects in construction—Eastern origin of many European instruments—Descriptions of instruments in common use.
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MOST of the early Indian musical instruments remain still in use. Since the time of the Mahomedan invasion, about a thousand years ago, some Arabian and Persian instruments have been adopted, and have become almost naturalised; but their use has never become universal, and is mostly confined to the North of India or to Mussulman musicians.
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The people of India have always been conservative in their tastes, and in nothing do we find this more evident than in their music and musical instruments. Descriptions of them all are found in many of the old Sanskrit treatises, and show that the forms of the instruments now in use have altered hardly at all during the last two thousand years; old paintings and sculptures, such as those of Ajanta, prove this even more conclusively.¹ There are many musical instruments to be found among the sculptures existing upon various old temples, cave temples, and ancient Buddhist topes and stupas in different parts of India. Those at Amravati and Sanchi are especially interesting.² For in the Amravati sculptures, which were visited by the traveller, Hiouen Thsang, and called by him Dhanakacheka, about the year 640 of our era, we find several representations of musical instruments. One of peculiar interest shows a group of eighteen women playing upon drums, a shell trumpet or s'ankha, one much like a surnai, and two instruments, apparently quanūns, of a shape very similar to the Assyrian harps. But there is another instrument represented that would seem to have been especially popular, but which is never met with in India now, nor can descriptions of it be found in the Sanskrit treatises upon instruments. This again figures in Assyrian and Egyptian sculptures and paintings. It is somewhat like a harp, and much like an African instrument called Sancho, and still used in some parts of that continent. Mr. James Fergusson notices strong Bactrian influences in this monument at Amravati, and is of opinion that the expression of the traveller Hiouen Thsang that this tope was ornamented with all the art of the palaces of Bactria is borne out to its fullest extent. This peculiar harp is again found amongst the sculptures at Sanchi; where also is seen an instrument resembling the Roman tibiæ pares. But the tibiæ pares are there shown without the capistrum or cheek bandage, and it is known that this instrument was also used by the Greeks. It is worthy of note that a form of the tibiæ pares is still common in Northern India, where it consists of a pair of flutes-à-bec. At Sanchi, too, is found a figure of a man blowing a kind of trumpet—the s'ringa—of much the same shape as that now employed in Bengal.
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¹ See "The Industrial Arts of India." Sir C. M. Birdwood. London, 1880.
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² "Tree and Serpent Worship." James Fergusson, F.R.S. London, 1868. See plates LXII., XXXVII., XXVIII. These sculptures are now in the British Museum.
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Perhaps the most reliable proofs of the antiquity of Indian instruments can be found, not so much in the Sanskrit, but in the Pâli works remaining. For to these Buddhist treatises it is an easier matter to assign dates that can be tolerably accurate. In the Milindha Panha,³ a Pâli work, written a little after the Christian era, is a description of the vina, also of the shell-trumpet (s'ankha) and the flute (here rendered vaṅsa—a reed). And in the Mahaparambhana Sutta, a still older work of about 400 B.C., we find mention of the Bheri, a word still used for the Nâgara, or large kettle-drum, and also of the mridang (here rendered muttinga; *cf.* mathala, the Southern Indian name of the mridang). The same work contains mention of the vina and pañava, the latter being a drum. And these instruments, with the addition of one called dendima, are found in a contemporary work called Sāmañña-phale-sutta, and in the Vimāna-vatthu also. The dendima is possibly the modern dinni, a small side-drum used by religious mendicants in Southern India at the present day.
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³ *See* Milindha Panha, Sacred books of the East, Vol. I., page 84. Vina is here translated mandoline; also page 48. *See* Buddhist Suttas. Oxford, 81. Translations of Mahaparambhana Sutta, page 101; also of Sāmañña-phale-sutta, § 90, and of Vimāna-vatthu, § 81, 10. Two kinds of tâla are mentioned in Digha I., 1, 13—*i.e.*, metal tâla and hand-tâla. The word for hand-tâla is found in many Pâli works. The thanks of the Author are due to Professor T. W. Rhys Davids for much valuable help and information.
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The materials of which musical instruments are made are for the most part those that are found readiest at hand in the country—bamboo, or some similar cane, and large gourds are much employed. These gourds are used for many purposes, and the best are trained in their growth to the shape for which they are required.
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In the manufacture of certain instruments earthenware is employed; the common country "blackwood" is largely used; in fact, whatever is found by the instrument makers, that from its natural shape, or the ease with which it can be worked, can be adapted with the least possible trouble to themselves, is readily seized upon, whether its acoustical properties are suitable or not, purity of tone being sacrificed to appearance. The natural consequence of this is that many instruments are badly put together in the first place; faults in their construction are glossed over by outward ornamentation, and, from want of proper material, the tone, which should be the first consideration, is frequently sadly deficient in volume and quality.
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The reason why this is so appears to be that the manufacture of musical instruments is chiefly in the hands of ordinary carpenters, most of whom are totally ignorant of the most elementary principles of music, and who, even if they possessed the requisite knowledge, could seldom afford either the time or money to spend upon experiments tending to improve their instruments: their principal consideration seems to be quantity instead of quality.
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Most musicians therefore prefer to patch and mend their old instruments, even though it will be slightly detrimental to their tone, to procuring fresh ones of a quality of which they are doubtful, and which they cannot test practically before they make their choice.
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A musical instrument, to be of any real practical good, requires in its construction not only skilled labour, but an experimental knowledge on the part of the maker of the principles of acoustics; he must know of the best materials, and the best known methods of building up an instrument from these materials. Such knowledge as this can only be attained by much study and the experience of a regular apprenticeship to the art. All this is, of course, obtained easily enough in Europe, where there is a ready sale for good instruments, and instrument making is a trade profitable enough for a supply to be kept on hand. In India, where, until comparatively recent times, music has been an art almost neglected for some hundreds of years, it is clear that there has been little scope for instrument makers of any ability, the supply being always far in excess of the demand.
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The chief defect apparent in the construction of Indian instruments, besides what are mentioned above, is one which affects them all—viz., that without altering the tuning a change of keys is impossible. This may at first sight seem incongruous, for the vina is semitonic. But it must be remembered that the third and fourth strings of that instrument, though they pass over the finger-board, are seldom stopped, and such devices as shifts are *absolutely* unknown. There is likewise no method of tuning to any fixed standard of pitch. Willard, in speaking of this, makes the following observations:—"A drum or tabor, the sound of which is necessarily monotonous, is an ever attendant and inseparable companion to Indian songs, whether any instrument be present or not. Its sound is taken as the keynote, and all other instruments that may be present and the voice are regulated by it. From this it appears that as long as the use of the drum or tabor is not laid aside there will be no necessity for change of keys, and the rhythmical nature of Indian music renders a liberal use of the drum more essential, in order to mark the time distinctly, than any other accompaniment."⁴
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⁴ "A Treatise on the Music of Hindustan." Captain N. A. Willard. Calcutta, 1834.
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Many of our own instruments, such as are in use at the present day, have their prototypes still in existence in the East.
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The ancient Pâli and Sanskrit treatises would appear to contain the earliest reliable description of any musical instruments, and from these it seems clear that those of most Asiatic nations were originally derived from the same source.
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The Persians still use an instrument called quanūn, much like that of the same name found now in India—a kind of dulcimer, strung with gut or wire strings, and played upon by plectra fastened to the fingers of the performers. This is a development of the kattyayana-vina or shata-tantri (*i.e.*, hundred-stringed) vina, as it was formerly called. This Persian quanūn, the prototype of the mediæval psaltery, afterwards became the santir, which has strings of wire in place of gut, and is played with two sticks, and in the West it eventually took the form of the dulcimer. Hence the origin of the complicated pianoforte of the present day can thus be traced to the Aryans. And so with many others. The violin, the flute, the oboe, the guitar, all have an Eastern origin. One of the earliest stringed instruments was called "pinaka," and had one string twanged by the fingers; its invention is ascribed to the god Siva.
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The violin bow is claimed by the Hindus to have been invented by Râbana, King of Ceylon, who, according to tradition, lived five thousand years ago.
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The earliest instrument played with a bow was called râbanastra or râbanastrana. What this instrument was like is rather doubtful, but at the present time there exists in Ceylon a primitive instrument played with a bow, called "vinavah," which has two strings of different kinds: one made of a species of flax and the other of horsehair, which is the material also of the string of the bow, which with bells attached to it is used as a fiddle-stick. The hollow part of this instrument is half a cocoa-nut shell polished, covered with the dried skin of a lizard, and perforated below.⁵
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⁵ “An Account of the Interior of Ceylon and its Inhabitants.” J. Davy, F.R.S.
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The vinavah is rarely met with except in the hands of strolling musicians, who support themselves by means of it. Whether this is the primitive râbanastra or not it is impossible to say, but it seems extremely probable that if not absolutely identical it bears at least a very strong resemblance to it. Another very ancient instrument which resembled the râbanastra was called amrita.
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Numbers of instruments still in use in India have not altered in the smallest particular their ancient forms. The vina, the tamburi or tamburu-vina, and the kinneri still remain just as they are described in the ancient books, even down to the very details of the carving with which they are adorned, so conservative are the people who use them of all connected with the art they hold to be so sacred. The peculiar shape of instruments of the viol and violin tribe appears to have a prototype among Indian instruments; and this can be seen in the rabôb, which is made with distinct upper, *lower, and middle bouts*, and in a less degree in the sârangi, sarôde, and chikâra.
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The rebec, once popular in Europe, was a form of the rabôb, brought to Spain by the Moors, who in turn had derived it from Persia and Arabia. Here again the Aryan origin is evident, the rabôb being, according to old Sanskrit works, a form of vina. And it is still popular in the North of India and Afghanistan.
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The use of instruments of percussion of definite sonorousness, such as the harmonica, does not seem to have entered into Indian music at any time until quite of late years.
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But this is rather an open question, for the harmonicon of cups called Jâlatharángini is by some ascribed to a very remote origin.
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Wind instruments, although perhaps of earlier invention than those with strings, are nevertheless looked upon as of secondary importance. Possibly this may have some reason in the fact that Brahmins are not allowed by their religious laws to use them, excepting only the flute blown by the nostrils, and one or two others of the horn and trumpet kind. And so men of low castes are employed as players of wind instruments. But all unite in ascribing to wind instruments a very high antiquity. The conch shell, still used in the daily temple ritual in almost every place in India, is said to have been first used by the god Krishna, and it is mentioned in the great epic of the Ramayana, where it is called Devadata. We also find it under the name of Goshringa, both in the Ramayana and the Mahabhârata.
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The horn (s'ringa) is also said to be of Divine origin, and it is mentioned in the earliest writings. But the flute (murali) is still held to be peculiarly sacred, for this flute was the companion of the god Krishna in all his wanderings, and in Indian mythology this flute is looked upon with much the same veneration that the lyre was by the Greeks, and by Brahmins it is still used occasionally and blown by the nostrils. In all sculptures and pictures the god Krishna is represented as standing cross-legged playing the flute.
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Reed instruments, although doubtless of a very remote origin, appear to have been invented at a later period than instruments of the flute species, and their use is, as has been stated, confined to either low caste Hindus or Mahomedans. For the Indian reed instruments are mostly harsh and wild, far too powerful and shrill to be used in concert with the delicate vina or sweet tamburi, and so their use is chiefly confined to out-of-door performances, where their sound is better heard and where they become fit adjuncts to the Nakkera Khaneh or band already described.
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Instruments with double reeds appear to have been originally brought from India, and the double reed is found in the primitive oboes used there as well as in Persia, Arabia, and Egypt. There seems to be no trace of the single beating reed ever having been known in India, but the single free reed is found in the bagpipe of the country. Indeed, the bagpipe would itself seem to have an Eastern origin, and although its use in Southern India and the Deccan is chiefly confined to a drone-bass, yet in the Punjâb and Afghanistan pipes are sometimes found containing both drone and chanter. And I have heard them played with a dexterity that would do credit to a Highland piper.
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The pungi, now used almost entirely by snake charmers, is said to have once been blown by the nostrils and called “Nâsajantra.”
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The jew's-harp (murchang) is mentioned in most of the Sanskrit works upon musical instruments, and its use is common all over India.
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The use of the gong and bell are universal, and need no particular description. The gong—called sometimes Tâla, but more generally Ghari—is found in almost all Hindu temples, and is used both in the daily ritual and also to note the hours of the day. It is usually about a foot in diameter and 1/3-inch in thickness; it is made of bell metal, and sounded by a wooden mallet. Indeed, the tone more nearly resembles that of a bell, and has certainly nothing in common with the Chinese gong. In Southern India a light instrument of this kind called Jâgatay or Semakalam is found, which is sounded by a curved bone striker. The small bell—called Ghante—is used in every Hindu temple, and is familiar to everyone. Bells of any size are not known in India, but the antiquity of the bell in India has been proved beyond doubt; specimens of curious old bells have been discovered in cromlechs and cairns in different parts of India.⁶ And among the Todas, the aborigines of the Niliri Hills, the bell is still an object of especial veneration.⁷
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⁶ “Bells of the Church.” H. T. Ellacombe. Exeter, 1872.
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⁷ “A Phrenologist amongst the Todas.” Colonel Marshall. London, 1873.
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The little ankle bells used by Nautch dancers are called Gūnguru or Gajelu, and are tied in strings round the ankles. They produce “a faint clashing sound as the feet move in steps, which mingles not unmusically with the dance music or songs which accompany the dance; and they not only serve to mark the time, but to keep the dancer or singer in perfect accord with the musicians. These bells are the symbols of their profession with all dancers and singers, and to some extent are held sacred. No dancer ties them on his or her ankles before performance without touching his or her forehead and eyes with them, and saying a short prayer or invocation to a patron saint or divinity—Hindu or Mahomedan. Nor is it possible, after a female singer or dancer has once been invested with them—a ceremony which is very solemnly performed and attended with much cost—to abandon the professional life so adopted. He, or she, has tied on the bells, is even a proverb to signify that the person alluded to has devoted himself or herself to a purpose from which it is impossible to recede. Strings of these small bells are also used for horses and tied round the fetlocks of prancing chargers, with gay tinsel ribbons or pieces of cloth; also round the necks of lap dogs; and some of a large size round the necks of favourite plough or cart bullocks. The latter are identical with sleigh bells. No post runner in India travels without a string of them tied on the end of his pole on which is slung the leather bag he carries, and on a still night their clashing sound, besides being heard at a great distance, serves to scare away wild beasts and to cheer the runner on his lonely path.”⁸
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⁸ “Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.” Vol. IX., Part i.
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And here it may be well to mention two instruments sometimes met with in Southern India—viz., the cup-harmonica and the Gatha.
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The Jâlatharángini⁹ is a harmonicon of cups of porcelain or earthenware tuned to the particular scale required by means of pouring in more or less water. It is played with two thin sticks, covered with felt or tipped with cork; and in company with other instruments the contrast of tone that its use effects is not unpleasing. The Septasvarab, called also Septaghantika, or Indian Glockenspiel, is somewhat similar, but more musical; it is made either of metal plates or bells, struck with a small felt-covered hammer. The employment of both instruments is rare.
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⁹ This instrument is said to be mentioned in a Sanskrit work—the name of which the author has been unable to ascertain—believed to have been written about A.D. 700.
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The Gatha resembles a large spherical jar or "chatty" in shape, and is largely used by Telegu musicians as an accompaniment to the vina. It is about 18 inches in height, and has a very small aperture and short neck, which is held downwards when it is in use. It is beaten with the hands and wrists, much like the drum called mathala, of which it takes the place, and the players manage to produce sounds of different pitch by striking it in different places. The performer usually sits cross-legged, and holds the gatha between his thighs, striking it with his finger tips, flat of his hand, or fleshy part of his wrist.
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Players upon the gatha display great dexterity, and often vary their performance by throwing the instrument up into the air and catching it again, beating it as they do so: this they keep up for almost any length of time. At the conclusion of the piece they let it fall into their hands (or upon the ground, so as to break with noise) at the exact conclusion of the measure (tâla), which they never for a moment lose.
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In some performances it is not unusual for the player upon the vina to change the measure suddenly, as often as he wills, so that the gatha player may better show his dexterity.
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Instruments of the trumpet kind—in which tones are produced by the lips vibrating within a cup-shaped mouthpiece—appear to be of very great antiquity, for mention is made of them in both the great Hindu epics—the Mahambhârata and the Ramâyana. There are large curved horns which in tone much resemble the Alp-horns of Switzerland. There are both straight and bent trumpets. The method of making an instrument of this kind more portable by being turned back, but without shortening its length of tubing, would seem to be very ancient. It is difficult to describe any definite scale for these instruments, for they are, with one or two exceptions, rarely used by any but men of low caste, and their proper compass is not employed or understood. The great similarity between the shape of the modern trumpet and the Indian tuturi is very striking, especially when it is remembered that this shape has not been copied from the European instrument, but has existed in India from remote ages.
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Indeed, so many points of resemblance might be noticed, and the development through ages of so many instruments traced, that it would be inadvisable to enlarge this chapter by so wide a digression from the subject.
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Indian musical instruments are usually classified under the following four designations, just as they were by Bhârata two thousand years ago:—
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I. Tata-yantra—Comprising all stringed instruments. II. Shusira-yantra—Comprising all instruments of percussion (not being covered with skin or parchment, such as drums), and includes cymbals, gongs, bells, castanets, &c. III. Ghana-yantra—Comprising all instruments covered with skins, such as drums, tabors, &c. IV. Anuddha-yantra—Comprising wind instruments of all kinds.
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In different parts of India there is of course a preference for particular instruments, but it is impossible to assign definite districts to them, as all kinds are to be found more or less throughout the country.
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In the following pages an endeavour has been made to give as far as possible some mention of all these instruments, together with the names by which they are known in different parts, and descriptions of those in most common use.
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If details are given sometimes which at first sight are apparently unnecessary, it has been done because in similar cases of musical investigations, if many things which appeared to be of little moment at the time had not been left unnoticed, much interesting light would have been thrown upon several questions of great interest which are still involved in darkness.
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In the tunings for stringed instruments given later, the position of the strings is as if the instrument were held upright, body nearest the ground, with the finger-board facing the reader. It is to be noted that in instruments of the vina kind the order of the strings is reversed from that of sitars and the like, where the first string or chanterelle is always on the right.
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A PLAYER ON THE KARNÂTIK SITAR.
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PLATE I.
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A BÎN PLAYER.
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THIS plate shows the position of a player upon the Bîn or Vina¹⁰ of the North of India. The vina of the South, described in the next plate, is sometimes called the Rudra vina, in distinction to the bîn or Mahati vina. As will be seen, this is a fretted instrument, the frets being arranged at semitonic intervals. The tuning differs from that of the Southern vina, and two gourd resonators take the place of the wooden pear-shaped body. It is worthy of note that an instrument of this description was described by Mersenne in 1636.¹¹
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¹⁰ This instrument is very fully described as "The Indian Lyre," "Asiatic Researches," Vol. I. The bîn has been described by Mr. Carl Engel as "the vina of the Indus"; this is, however, an error on his part, it being but a form, and far from the best form, of that instrument, popular chiefly because of its comparatively low cost. Drawings of this instrument will be found in his "Musical Instruments," in "Asiatic Researches" above-mentioned, and in Hipkins and Gibb's "Musical Instruments."
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¹¹ "Harmonie Universelle." Fr. Mersenne. Paris, 1636.
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The average total length of the instrument is 3 feet 7 inches, in which case the dimensions are as follows:—
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The first gourd is fixed at 10 inches from the top, and the second about 2 feet 11½ inches.
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The gourds are usually very large, about 14 inches in diameter, and each has a round piece cut out of the bottom to act as a sound hole.
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The finger-board is 21⅝ inches in length and about 3 inches wide, and upon it are placed the frets, exactly in the same manner as in the vina, and at the same semitonic intervals.
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The frets are nineteen to twenty-two in number, that nearest the nut usually being ⅛-inch above the finger-board, and that at the other extremity about ⅜-inch, the decrease gradual.
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The strings are seven in number, four of which pass over the frets, the remainder being side strings, placed two on the left side and one upon the right. The instrument is tuned as follows :—
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Left side. Finger-board. Right side.
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but a very much more common tuning is—
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the wire X upon the right side being tuned to either Ga (E) or Dha (A), according to the requirement of the râga performed.
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The strings upon the left side and the two highest upon the finger-board are usually steel, the remainder brass or silver.
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The instrument is held over the left shoulder, the upper gourd resting upon it, and the lower gourd on the right knee.
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The frets are stopped with the left hand, the little finger of which is used occasionally to strike the side string on the left side.
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The strikes are made by the right hand in a similar way to that employed in the sitar, except that the two first fingers are armed with wire plectra.
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The notes are rapidly reiterated in the bîn as well as in the sitar by the plectra being passed backwards and forwards across the string; this produces a kind of sostenuto.
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The chief peculiarity of this instrument, as will be remarked, is the tuning, which employs additional intervals to that of the Southern vina, and so renders the instrument less confined in its modulation. The tone is rather thinner than and not so pleasing as that of the vina of the South, on account of the greater tendency of the strings to jangle. The instrument is nevertheless very popular, and when found in Southern India is used chiefly by Hindustani musicians. Instruments of this kind are sometimes made with moveable frets, like those of a sitar, in consequence of the greater facility with which they can be played by less experienced performers.
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An illustration of a bîn of this latter kind is shown in Plate IV.
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SOUTHERN INDIAN VINA. SMALL SITAR.
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T HE instrument to the left of the plate represents the Vina in common use in Southern India. Though in Northern India and the Deccan the use of the vina, or bîn, is restricted to professional musicians or skilful performers, we do not find this to be the case in the South. This instrument is taught in the schools in many places, and is a very favourite one with amateurs of the higher classes. The specimen here represented is about 250 years old, and is from the collection at the Tanjore palace. The delicacy of the carving and the great wealth of decoration bestowed upon this instrument are remarkable, and prove it to have belonged to some very distinguished personage—probably to one of the Maharajahs of Tanjore.
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The vina is a stringed instrument, with frets, played with the fingers, or rather finger-nails, somewhat in the same manner as a mandoline or guitar.
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Its construction, however, renders it for purposes of melody a far more perfect instrument than either of the latter, and although its tones are not so full and rich, its compass is larger, and it is, in skilled hands, capable of producing a much greater variety of effects.
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Its tone, judged from a European standard, is rather thin, but curiously soft and plaintive. It is somewhat like that of the Tyrolese zither, which, however, it exceeds in fulness, and it is capable of infinitely more expression.
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The vina has seven strings, four pass over the frets (twenty-four in number), three shorter strings are placed at the side of the finger-board, and are employed chiefly as a kind of accompaniment or to mark the time used by the performer.
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The four large strings are termed saranis and are named thus:— Sarani .... 1st, thinnest .... steel. Panchami .... 2nd, .... ,, Mandaram .... 3rd, .... brass or silver. Anumandaram .... 4th, thickest .... ,, ,, The three side strings are termed pakha-saranis and are of steel. The names of the various parts of the instrument are as follows:— (a.) Kayî or body, formed of thin wood and hollowed out of the solid. (b.) Gvantu, a projecting ledge, often of ivory, separating the body from the stem. (c.) Langaru,¹² metal fastenings which secure the strings to the attachment. These fastenings have rings sliding upon them which can be used in tuning to alter the pitch slightly, without turning the tuning pegs. (d.) Dhandi, neck, made hollow. (e.) Yeddapalaka, or belly. Small sound holes, in circles of about 2 inches diameter, are placed on each side of the strings, about 1 inch above the bridge. (f.) Dhandipalaka, a piece of thin wood covering the hollow of the neck underneath the frets. (g.) Mâruvapalaka, two ledges, each about ½-inch in height, projecting from the dhandipalaka and to which the frets are secured. (h.) Metlu, or frets, formed of "half-round" bars of brass or silver about ⅛-inch thick. (i.) Cupé, a cup or socket of some metal into which the burra or calabash is fastened; these cupés are often of silver and richly chased. (j.) Burra, or calabash, a kind of hollow gourd attached to the underside of the neck, near the head, to increase the volume of sound. (k.) Pallumanu, or nut, a piece of ivory over which the strings pass, placed between the pegs and the finger-board. (l.) Mogulu, small ivory pegs answering the purpose of nuts, over which the side strings pass. (m.) Gurram, bridge. (p.) Bhirtu, tuning pegs.
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¹² Strings are sometimes secured to the attachment directly, as described for those of the tamburi.
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The burra or calabash is secured to the neck by means of a nut and screw, and is detachable at will.
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The instrument is tuned in one of the three ways following:—¹³
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¹³ A native musician would say for Panchāma s’ruti, “Pa, Sa, Pa, Sa”; and for Madhyama s’ruti, “Sa, Pa, Sa, Pa”; hence the change of keys is shown.
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In “Panchāma s’ruti.” In “Madhyama s’ruti.” (1) In “Madhyama s’ruti.” (2) Side strings. Finger-board. Side strings. Finger-board. Side strings. Finger-board.
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The construction of the bridge is peculiar and deserves notice.
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A wooden arc supports a slab of wood 1 by 2½ inches. A resinous cement is poured upon this, and a piece of metal passing underneath the second, third, and fourth strings is laid above and manipulated until the strings produce a clear tone free from all buzz or twang; a wet cloth is then applied, or a little cold water poured over the upper surface, so as to harden the cement. Under the first string a similar piece of metal, in this case of a superior quality—either polished steel or bell metal—is fixed in the same way.
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This process is considered very important, as the least carelessness affects the tone of the instrument and gives it a most unpleasant twang.
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No. 1 is the thin string. ,, 2, very slightly thicker. ,, 3, thicker again. ,, 4, thicker again.
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No. 5 ,, 6 ,, 7 } The same gauge as No. 1.
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The side string bridge is secured to the main bridge and the belly of the instrument and is made entirely of metal; it consists of an arc of brass with a projecting rim upon the side nearest the attachment.
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The strings pass across the flat of the arc through three saw cuts in the rim. Pieces of silk or quill termed “jivalam,” placed beneath the strings and the bridge, are occasionally employed to correct any inclination to buzzing.
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Most instruments of this description require steel strings of a quality specially made for the purpose. The best strings are made at Channapatna in Mysore, or Bareilly in the North, where the process of manufacture is kept secret and is in the hands of a particular caste.
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The price given for such strings is high, on an average Rs. 6 for a *sîr* of twenty-four rupees weight, when sold wholesale.
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The fretting of a vina requires great care, and most musicians prefer to fix their own frets.
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The frets are fixed to the mâruvapalaka by means of small spikes, and additionally secured by a resinous cement poured in between them, and moulded neatly as it hardens.
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When finished the finger-board resembles a ladder, there being a space varying from ½-inch at the head to 2 inches at the end nearest the bridge between the frets and the dhandipallaka, or piece of wood covering the hollow stem.
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The vina is held in one of the three following positions:—
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(a.) The performer sits cross-legged upon the ground, and holds the vina so that the calabash almost touches the left thigh, the left arm passing round the stem so that the fingers rest easily upon the frets. The body of the instrument is upon the ground, partially supported by the right thigh.
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(b.) The calabash almost touches the left thigh as before, but the right knee is bent upwards, the body of the instrument being in front and resting upon the ground, touching the right leg, which prevents it slipping away.
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(c.) The performer sits cross-legged upon the ground as before, but holds the body of the instrument in his lap, the finger-board being vertical.
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The method of playing upon the vina is rather different from that of other Indian instruments. The left hand is employed to stop the strings on the frets, the right hand to strike with.
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Strikes are called “mehtu,” and are of three kinds, viz. :— Kutra--mehtu. Toda--mehtu. Gotu--mehtu.
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The right hand is employed thus: the wrist is laid almost upon the edge of the belly, and the hand is slightly arched upwards; the first and second fingers are above, and are used to strike the large strings, all strikes being made with the nail downwards. Players upon the vina purposely allow the nails of the right hand to grow rather long, for this instrument is never played with plectra. The side strings are sounded by the third and fourth fingers of the right hand moved upwards.
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The first exercise that a pupil learns is to strike one of the large strings (downwards) simultaneously with one of the side strings (upwards), a more difficult feat to accomplish than might be at first supposed.
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These simple strikes are called gotu mehtu. The kutra mehtu is accomplished by striking the same string twice—first with the forefinger and then with the second finger—so as to produce a repetition of the same sound.
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The toda mehtu, or etouffe, is made by striking a string with the forefinger and then gently stopping the vibration with the second finger so as to produce a staccato sound.
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The left hand is used for all work upon the frets.
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As was the case with the lute, the melody is chiefly played upon the first string—the chanterelle, in fact—which is commonly stopped by the first and second fingers placed together.
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The fourth string is stopped by the thumb—the others, when required, by the middle and third fingers.
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The least difference of pressure upon the frets causes a variation in the pitch, of which use is made in all grace and embellishments.
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A species of transient shake styled “rekhu” is of frequent occurrence; it is produced by the string when stopped being slightly pressed, and at the same time pulled out of the straight line. This will raise the pitch to any degree required, not exceeding a major third, beyond which it is found that the string usually breaks.
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The performer can thus produce graces of all kinds, embracing intervals less than semitones, which can be clearly distinguished by the ear.
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Another effect called “rava” is produced by the string being stopped upon one fret and being beaten by a finger upon the next fret above.
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This, when combined with rekhu, adds considerably to the capability of the instrument, and it must be remembered that the string can be kept in a state of vibration very much longer than in the guitar, owing to its thinness in proportion to its length.
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The use of glisse, as with the guitar, is frequent.
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The small sitar shown on the right of the plate is of Deccan manufacture. It is ornamented prettily with ivory carving, and the body of the instrument is formed from a cocoa-nut. Sitars of this kind are much used by native ladies, and their tone is singularly sweet and plaintive, though, of course, not so powerful as that of the larger sitars. The method of arranging the frets and of playing the instrument is precisely as that described for the larger sitar in Plate III.
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ANNA GHARPURE (A SITAR PLAYER IN THE SERVICE OF H.H. THE THAKORE SAHIB OF WADHWAN).
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SUR-S’RINGÂRA. LARGE SITAR.
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T HE instrument shown upon the right of the plate is the Sitar.¹⁴ This specimen has been adorned with paintings, representing the avatars or appearances of the god Vishnu, and is the work of a Poona maker. The sitars commonly found are only different from this in that the bodies are unpainted.
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¹⁴ The invention of the sitar is commonly credited to Ameer Khusru, of Delhi, in the twelfth century. Captain Willard states that the instrument derives its name from si, سه, signifying in Persian three, and tar تار, a string, as that number was commonly used.
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The sitar is called also Sundari, and is perhaps the commonest of all the stringed instruments of India, being much admired. Its use in Southern India is not so frequent as in the Deccan and farther North, and is chiefly confined to those who practise the Hindustani in preference to the Karnâtik system of music.
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In general appearance the sitar is not unlike the tamburi, described later.
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The finger-board is about three inches wide, the frets are of brass or silver, eighteen (sometimes sixteen) in number, and flatly elliptical; they are secured to the finger-board by pieces of gut passing underneath—this arrangement admits of their being shifted so as to produce intervals of any particular scale (thât), hence the capability of the instrument is naturally limited.
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The body of the sitar is usually of gourd, cut in half in the direction of the core, with a belly of thin wood pierced with a certain number of sound holes fixed upon it.
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The tone of medium-sized sitars is considered preferable to that of large ones.
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The nut, or ledge, over which the strings pass on their way to the pegs from the frets is peculiar, and is made double; that nearest the pegs having holes through which the strings pass, and that nearest the frets having simply small notches. The number of strings varies, instruments being made with from three to seven strings.
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They are tuned as follows—
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These tunings are considered to be “Panchāma s’ruti.” If the G strings be lowered a tone the sitar will be in “Madhyama s’ruti.”
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The instrument is played by means of a plectrum of wire placed upon the forefinger, the thumb being usually pressed firmly upon the edge of the belly, so that the position of the right hand shall change as little as possible.
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Sitars, called Taraffedar, with sympathetic strings underneath those played upon, are sometimes found.
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The sitar is fairly easy to learn, and much can be made of it by experienced performers; but there is a peculiarity in its tone when played at all loud which greatly mars the effect, the tender charm and colouring of that of the vina being completely absent. To be heard with advantage a sitar should be at a little distance from the listener, the unpleasant jangle of its strings will not then be so apparent, and the melody will be more clear.
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According to the common custom, the methods of shifting the frets are five. The five methods, called thâts, are as follows. These thâts have no names, but are usually known from the râgas that are commonly played upon them:—
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| | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
| | | | F♯ | | | |
| | | | G | | | |
| | | | A♭ | | | |
| | | | A | | | |
| | | | B♭ | | | |
| | | | B | | | |
| | | | C | | | |
| | | | D♭ | | | |
| | | | D | | | |
| | | | E♭ | | | |
| | | | E | | | |
| | | | F | | | |
| | | | F♯ | | | |
| | | | G | | | |
| | | | A♭ | | | |
| | | | A | | | |
| | | | B♭ | | | |
| | | | B | | | |
| | | | C | | | |
| | | | D♭ | | | |
| | | | D | | | |
| | | | E♭ | | | |
| | | | E | | | |
| | | | F | | | |
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Nos. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6 are the arrangements of frets in different thâts for an eighteen-fretted sitar. No. 3 is for a twenty-four-fretted sitar, in which there is no need to alter the frets.
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The intervals given represent those upon the F string or chanterelle.
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In Taraffedar sitars the sympathetic strings are tuned to the intervals obtained by the F string, and the frets over their respective nuts. All instruments with moveable frets (other than sitars) are arranged according to one of the above thâts. The sympathetic strings are arranged in various ways, but very commonly thus—G, A, B, C, d, e, f, g, a, b, some of the intervals being flattened or sharpened according to the râga played.
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Some sitars are so constructed that the body is almost flat, instead of pear-shaped. This is accomplished by cutting the gourd body in a peculiar manner, so that the calix shall be at the back of the instrument. To such sitars the name Kachwar is given. Some people give the name Kachapi-vina to them. A rather uncommon instrument of this description is called the Surbehar, which is merely a large-sized sitar or kachapi-vina, played with a steel plectrum, and specially used for the performance of alâpas or râgas. The body is of wood, with a flat back, and there are usually sympathetic strings attached. The tone is rich and mellow like that of the vina, but the large size of the instrument renders its use fatiguing, while the cost is very high. It is tuned, of course, as the ordinary sitar.
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But besides the sitar just described, there is another form of the instrument to be met with in Southern India. This might be called the Karnâtik-sitar, and it differs from the ordinary sitar in that it is confined in its intonation and is generally made with a much thinner and shorter neck. Its capability is, of course, much less. It is usually shaped somewhat like a tamburi, the body of the instrument being made either of gourd or of wood. The manner of stringing is peculiar. The first and second strings only pass over frets, which are about ½-inch wide, and raised from the finger-board; these strings are tuned in unison, and they are placed very much nearer together than the other strings. The third string is tuned in unison with the first, but does not pass over frets. The fourth string passes round a small ivory bead about half way up the finger-board, whence it passes obliquely under the strings to its tuning peg. The fifth string is placed in a similar way, the ivory peg being in this case a little nearer to the bridge. The sixth and seventh strings pass straight up the finger-board in the ordinary manner. With the exception of the seventh, which is of brass, the strings are of steel, and are secured either as those of the tamburi or vina.
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The frets are of wood, with an upper edge of metal, only about ¼-inch in width, and fixed to the finger-board; the strings cannot therefore be pulled so as to produce "rekhu" without their coming off the frets. The number of frets is usually fourteen, placed at the intervals of the diatonic major scale; occasionally there are two extra frets at semitonic intervals, placed between the third and fourth, and tenth and eleventh. Karnâtik sitars are sometimes found fretted throughout in semitonic intervals, the number of frets being the same as in a vina.
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The instrument is tuned thus—
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In the ordinary instruments the noise made by the accompaniment frequently drowns the air, the strings having a strong tendency to twang. But the tone of these Karnâtik sitars, when properly made, is soft and sweet, and, being confined in intonation, more nearly resembles that of the mandoline than any other Indian instrument.
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The Sur-s'ringâra—shown upon the left of the plate—is somewhat like the rabôb in shape, but with a wooden belly, and played with an iron plectrum. There are, as a rule, two frets only, the finger-board below the frets being generally of metal, so that the fingers may slide easily over it. The length of the instrument is about 4 feet, and its tone is rich and mellow, somewhat like that of the pizzicato notes of the violoncello. It is tuned thus, and has usually seven sympathetic strings tuned to the intervals of the râga in which the performer is playing; the melody string is that upon the right, tuned to G:—
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BÎN-SITAR. TÂUS.
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THE instrument to the left of this plate is the Bîn-sitar, in outward appearance very similar to the bîn previously described. It differs, however, in that the frets are moveable and are arranged precisely as given for those of the sitar. The strings are arranged as those of the bîn, and therefore reversed in order from those of the sitar. The Bîn-sitar is not a common instrument; indeed, the few specimens that I have met with have all been in Poona and the neighbourhood. The tuning is like that of the bîn.
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The instrument to the right of the plate is the Tâus or Esrar. Sometimes this instrument is called Mohur. It is merely a form of sitar with moveable frets. The Tâus is not much esteemed by any but Nautch musicians, and it is rarely to be met with out of Upper India. As its name implies, it is usually shaped like a peacock. Its body is painted like that of the bird, and to the lower end a wooden neck and head, covered with feathers, are attached. It is sometimes played with a bow.
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The tuning varies slightly, but never employs other intervals than the tonic, fourth, and fifth, and occasionally the third. There are usually sympathetic strings attached, tuned to the intervals of the râga played.
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SÂRÍNDA. SÂRANGI.
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THE Sârangi, or fiddle of India, shown to the right of this plate, is usually strung with three strings of thick gut and played with a bow. Sometimes a fourth string of wire called luruj is added. The fingers of the left hand, in stopping the strings, do not press them down upon the finger-board, but press against them at the side in all the positions. The tone of the sârangi more nearly resembles that of the viola than any European instrument, and when well played there is a charm about the instrument that is not easily forgotten. The sârangi is frequently employed to play a sort of obbligato to a song, particularly in theatrical performances and by Nautch companies. There are generally in instruments of this kind fifteen sympathetic strings of wire tuned chromatically. The instrument is made from a single block of wood hollowed out, and has a parchment belly. When in use it is held vertically, head uppermost. Curiously enough, as was the case with the violin in England at one time, the instrument is considered to be rather vulgar, and hence musicians, though they admire and like it much, will usually employ either a low caste Hindu or a Mussulman to play it. The tuning is as follows:—
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The string marked x is of brass, tuned either to E or F, according to the requirements of the râga played—this string is called luruj.
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The illustration shows the instrument as commonly found in the South of India and the Deccan. The resin for the bow is ingeniously placed in the head.
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The bow for the Sârangi is the same as that shown in Plate IV. for the Tâus. In Upper India and the Punjâb a slightly different form of the Sârangi is found, and is generally more highly decorated and with a differently shaped head.
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The three-stringed instrument to the left of the plate is the Sârînda, a bowed instrument common in Bengal. The decoration and carving are characteristic, although rough. The Sârînda is not a very high-class instrument, but is very popular with the lower classes. The tuning is like that of the chikâra, and the strings are of gut or silk. The bow used with it is that shown. The chief peculiarity of the Sârînda consists in the way that the belly, which is of parchment, is put on. As will be seen by the plate, it is made to cover only the lower part of the body, leaving the upper half quite open.
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RABÔB. CHIKÂRA. SÂRANGI.
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THE Sârangi found in Upper India differs slightly from that of the South and the Deccan. The head is generally carved to represent the neck of a swan, and the body is rounded instead of being square; the number of sympathetic strings, too, is often less. The beautiful specimen shown in the upper part of the plate is in the possession of Mr. C. Purdon Clark, C.S.I., through whose kindness Mr. Gibb has been enabled to make this representation. The instrument is ornamented with ivory and inlaid with small turquoises. The tuning and the method of playing the Northern Sârangi do not differ from that of the instrument described under the preceding plate.
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The Chikâra—shown to the right of the plate—is somewhat similar to the sârangi, but smaller, and is used by common people. It has three strings of gut or horsehair and five sympathetic strings of wire. The tuning is
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commonly, or else like that of the sârangi. The sympathetic strings are generally tuned to G, A, B, c, d; (any of these intervals being made ♭ or ♯ as required).
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The other instrument in the plate is the Rabôb, which is found in almost all Mahomedan countries, and in various places differs only in shape. The Indian Rabôb is principally used in the Punjâb and Upper India; its use in other parts is confined to Mahomedans. The instrument is made of wood, with a belly of parchment. In general there are four strings—three of gut and one of brass; the two upper strings are sometimes doubled and tuned alike, in which case, of course, the instrument has six strings. Sympathetic strings of metal are usually attached at the side. Four or five catgut frets at semitonic intervals are sometimes found. The instrument is played with a wooden plectrum, and rarely with a bow as a sârangi. The Rabôb is a handsome instrument, and when well played is very pleasing. Its tone rather resembles that of the banjo.
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Linked texts (9)
- Milindapañha — Pāli
- Vimānavatthu — Pāli
- Mahāparinibbānasutta — Pāli
- Sāmaññaphalasutta — Pāli
- Dīghanikāya — Pāli
- Mahābhārata — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
- Vālmīkirāmāyaṇa — Vālmīki, Sanskrit
- Sāñcī
- Ajanta