The Music of Hindostan c16: Chapter XI. Form

The Music of Hindostan c16

Language: English

c16.s1 Specimens of Rāgs — 166 parts

Chapter XI. Form

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THAT principle of balance by which the several parts of a song, whether it lasts half a minute or half an hour, stand out from one another in strong contrast and yet help, each of them in its way, to build up the general sense of unity—that ordered disposition of its component parts by which music travels to an inevitable climax, neither postponing it nor anticipating it, and thence to a close—that variety which gives flesh and blood to the bare bones of structure—all this is ‘Form’. Form is, however, rather an instinct than a principle, and it is dangerous to follow it too much into detail, because a composer may at any moment wrap his principle in new detail and justify it by success, and then analysis is apt to boggle.

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Still, even instinct must work in elements of design which make on the whole either for variety or for unity, or which can be so used as to do the one or the other. The primal unity of our system is the tonic chord, and in a larger scheme the tonic key; and the sense of contrast reposes primarily in the dominant and subdominant chords and keys. These again can become unifying forces with related keys supplying contrast. It would be impossible for our music to get away from this as long as it continues to be harmonic, since all these chords are by implication in the triad itself (major or minor), and, by extension of its meaning, many others. The primal unity of the Hindu system is similarly the tonic note, or drone; and the sense of contrast is supplied primarily by the *aṃśa*, that note in which the lie of the song, its *tessitura*, centres, and the notes which are related to this (1) as consonants, *saṃvādī*, (2) as passage notes (*anuvādī, vivādī*) between the consonants. But whereas the dominant was implied in the tonic, and while contrasting with it still made for unity, the *aṃśa* stands out against the drone (*kharaj*¹) as a matter of choice, and so makes for contrast; and yet since the varying relationship (in the different *Rāgs*) of the amśa to the kharaj, its relative distance from it, is what gives its special character to the song, this very contrast may be said also to impart unity, the unity, namely, of that particular Rāg; and thus the general unity of the song proceeds not from intrinsic necessity, but from freedom of choice.

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¹ Kharaj is a vernacular form, through *ṣaḍ(a)j*, of *ṣaḍja* (Skr.).

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The first thing in a song is to put this relationship of the amśa and kharaj beyond doubt. This is done by the Ālāp (prelude). The notes of the Rāg are sung not in strict time, but in a loose kind of rhythm regulated by the convenience of the breath and by the amount of ‘work’ that is to be got on to the notes, and sung not to words, but to vocalizing syllables—Na, Ma, Ta, Ra, La, &c. The ‘work’ consists in elaborate graces, calculated to make the most of the important notes of the Rāg; and in order that these may be given with due impressiveness the Ālāp is taken at a slow or a moderate pace. Grace thus used to put the important notes in inverted commas is called mūrchhana. It is obvious that the Ālāp is a real necessity both for performer and listener; without it the listener would spend his time for some part of the song in ignorance of its tonal centres, and the melody would be for him an aimless running up and down hill, while the performer would, without a little preliminary practice, very likely play a note or two which was out of the Rāg, and that would upset the ‘unity’ altogether.

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The scheme of the song proper, in its full shape, is as follows:

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| S. INDIA. | N. INDIA. |
| 1. Pallavi, ‘germ’, ‘sprout’. First subject, focussed on the amśa. | 1. Astai or Sthāyi, ‘at home’. |
| 2. Anupallavi, ‘after-germ’. Second subject, focussed on the ‘consonant’, generally the upper consonant. | 2. Antara, ‘interval’, meaning perhaps change of voice-register. |
| 3. Caraṇam, ‘moving about’. Phrases taken from the Pallavi and Anupallavi to which the extra stanzas, if any, are sung. | 3. Sancāri, ‘alternation’; our ‘development’. |
| 4. Return to the Pallavi and close on the tonic (śruti) or Fifth above. | 4. Return to the Astai, and close with the first note or phrase of the song, and for choice on the tonic (kharaj) or amśa. This return is sometimes called Ābhōg, ‘coda’. |

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This is the form in South India for the full-fledged Kīrṭaṇam (√kṛ, celebrate). The Kṛiti (perhaps from the same root) has no caraṇam, and this seems to be the more usual form in North India. The theme of the following is a repeated three-bar passage (Cherarāvademirā) with a link phrase (Rāmayya). In No. 3 variation the first bar of this is expanded to four, and in No. 4 to eight bars. The original theme is then dropped, and taken up again in No. 9. In Nos. 11, 12 comes a suggestion of the theme of the anupallavi, which follows at No. 13 at the upper consonant B♭, the pallavi having circled round the aṃśa, E♭.

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Indian theory would not of course allow that the A♮ of the anupallavi involved a change of Rāg. That note is introduced only to form the ‘strong’ tetrachord (see Chapter XII), but the effect is indistinguishable from what we should call a key contrast. The caraṇam begins with phrases of the pallavi and ends with those of the anupallavi, and is preceded and followed by the cadenza.

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Words. A girl is singing:—Pallavi. Why do you not come to me, O Rāma. Anupallavi. O infinite God, strong as Mount Meru, I can no longer bear (to be without you). Caraṇam. A fatherless and motherless child I pray to thee, I call on thee, I beseech thee, my own Lord. Again and again I cry in my sorrow to thee, my own dear Lord. Ah! with what yearning I gaze upon thy face, fair as the lotus. I send my petition to thee in strains that Tyāgarāja has made.

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Cherarāvademirā, by Tyāgarāja (words and music). Rāgam Ritigaula. (Aeolo-dorian.) Tālam Desādi (2/4, beginning on the up beat). Devotamente. ♩ = 72.

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Ex. 379.

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FINE. Anupallavi. 14 Me-ru-gā - du-rā i - ka ma-hā - - -

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16 Svarā. ga-ma pa-da-ma pa-ga ma ga-ri-sa ni sa-ni

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ga - ri-sa . . . ga-ga ma-ma ni-da-ma ga-ma ni-ni - sa ni-sa ga-ga-

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- ma ga-ri ga-ga-ri-sa ri - sa ni da-ma-ga-ri . ni sa-ga ga-ma Che -

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- ra - rā - va - de - mi rā . . . Ra-ma-yya Che-ra-rā - va-

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Carana.

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- de - mi - rā . . Ta-lli tan-dri le - ni - bā -

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- la . .

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ga - ma pa - da - ma pa-ga

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ma-ga-ri-sa ni - sa-ni ga - ri-sa . . . ga-ga ma-ma ni da-ma-ga-ma

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ni - ni - sa ni-sa-ga-ga ma-ga-ri ga-ga - ri - sa ri - sa - ni da-ma-ga-ri

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. . ni-sa - ga ga-ma Che - ra - rā - - va - de - - - mi - D.C. al Fine.

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- rā . . Ra-ma-yya Che-ra-rā - va - de - - mi - rā . .

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A few particulars of the different styles of song, collected chiefly from books¹ are here given. The distinction between them seems to rest principally on the words, secondly on the time, hardly at all on the tune, but a good deal on the general form.

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¹ Pingle's *Indian Music*, Rajah S. M. Tagore's *Reprints from various Authors* and *Universal History of Music*.

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The oldest forms of Hindu song are the *Pada* and *Bhajana*. The *Pada* is generally some pithy saying taken from Sanskrit verse and enlarged upon. The *Bhajana*, ‘adoration’, is connected with *Bhakti*, ‘faith in a personal God’, ‘love for him as for a human being, the dedication of everything to his service, and the attainment of *mokṣa* (emancipation) by this means rather than by knowledge, or sacrifice, or works’.¹ The *Bhajana* specialized in the Krishna literature; and as the Bengali *Kīrtana* does the same they may be classed together. The former is a religious recital in which the congregation sing all the time under a leader, *Bovā* (‘man of piety’), and takes place between sunset and sunrise. In the latter the leader has a long story to tell, of a dramatic nature, and the congregation act as chorus. Its invention is ascribed to Chaṇḍīdās, a native of Birbhaum, the birthplace of Jayadeva; it is mentioned in the *Ain-i-Akbari*. With it is associated the mystery play, *Jātrā*, which circled round the love of Krishna and Rādhā.

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¹ L. J. Sedgwick, in the *Journal of the B. B. R. A. Society* for 1911.

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The typical form of Hindu song, a development of the *Pada* and *Bhajana*, untouched by Mohammedan influence, is the *Dhrūpad* (*Dhruva-pāda*—*dhruva*, ‘firm’, ‘enduring’; *pāda*, ‘quarter-verse’; *Dhruva* is a name also for the ‘constantly recurring verse’ or ‘burden’ of a song). The *Dhrūpad* has a free masculine character; its words are religious, but not exclusively so. It is in slow time, and in selected *Tāls*—*Surphaktā*, *Chautāl*, and *Dhamār*—the ionic and anapaestic metres in fact; and since to perform it requires a good command of the breath, there is a saying—‘The man who has the strength of five buffaloes, let that man sing *Dhrūpad*’. When there is any doubt about the exact form of a particular *Rāg*, appeal is made not to the Sanskrit authorities, but to the traditional form of *Dhrūpad*. In that the *Rāg* is to be found in its purity with its *mūrchhanas* (the ‘consonant’ notes ornamented); a *Rāg* without these is called *Jhil* or *Dhun*. But the *Dhrūpad* is free from other grace-notes; and since these are considered essential to Hindu song, the *Dhrūpad* is somewhat at a discount; it is considered, for instance, unsuitable for public performance. Further, since most songs demand a compass of two and a half octaves, and since this can only be attained by *falsetto*, this kind of voice is prized for its ‘liveliness’, and the natural (*dhruva*) voice neglected; so that *Dhrūpad* singers are apt to form a special class. The great representative of the style was Rajah Mān of Gwalior (died 1518).

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Another old form is the *Kathā*, or sermon in song. A text from the *Rāmāyaṇa* or the *Mahābharata* is intoned (in about an octave of notes) and then expounded in the speaking voice and in the vernacular by a *Kathaka*.

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Another is the *Kabī*, a song of question and answer, such as the Garhwālī songs, pp. 50, 51. It is a popular form in the villages, and became in the eighteenth century a favourite in higher circles, when question and answer were elaborately prepared instead of being impromptu.

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The commonest type is the *Khyāl*, a later form of *Dhrūpad*, supposed to emanate from Mahmud Sharqi of Jaunpur (1401–40). It is a song (*Chija*) or an instrumental piece (*Gati*) constructed of variations on, or rather episodes relieving, a short phrase; a Rondo in fact. The *Khyāl* ranges from a very simple little song to the following, which with its compass of three octaves probably represents the extreme of elaboration. Its highest development belongs to the Mohammedan period; this, *Kaba ho kapī*, is from the Panjab, where there are few but Mohammedan singers. The theme is variously treated on its three or four dozen appearances, and is not so monotonous to listen to as it is to write or to read, and the playful sweep of the episodes (*tāna*, ‘divisions’ in our eighteenth-century sense of the word) has nothing clumsy about it. The *Khyāl* is generally a love-tale and supposed to be sung by a woman; the procedure of love-making is in India, as so many other things are, the reverse of ours. It is the typically pathetic form of song.

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Malkos. Velambit. Tīntāl.

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Ex. 380. Ka-ba ho . . ka-pī . . . rā - gho . . . ā - - - wen - - - ge Ka-ba ho . . ka-pī . . . me - re . . nai . . . nā cha-ko-ra pī - tī - ba se rā . . .

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kā śa - śī mu - kha . . de - - - kha - na - - a . . .

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. . . ā - - - - - - wen - - - ge Ka-ba ho . . ka-pī .

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. . . A . . . A . . . . . . Ka-ba ho . . ka-pī .

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. . . A . . . . . A . . . . . . . . . .

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Ka - ba ho . . ka - pī . . . A . . . . . A . . . .

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. . . . . . Ka-ba ho . . ka-pī . . . A . . . .

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. . . A . . . . . A . . . A . . . . .

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. . . . . . . . Ka-ba ho . . ka-pī . . . A . . .

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. . . A . . . . . A . . . . . A . . . . .

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[Figure:] . . . . . Ka-ba ho . . ka-pī .

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. . . A . . A . . . . .

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[Figure:] Ka-ba ho . . ka-pī . . . . . . Ka-ba ho . . .

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[Figure:] . . . ka-pī . . . rā - gho . . . ā - wen -

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[Figure:] - ge . . . Ka-ba ho . . . . . ka-pī ra-gho ā - wen - ge .

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[Figure:] . . . Ka-ba ho . . . ka - pī . . . . . Ka-ba ho . . . . . .

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[Figure:] . . . ka-pī . . . . . . . . . . ī . . . . . .

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[Figure:] . . . ī . . . . rā - gho ā - wen - ge . Ka-ba ho . ka-pī .

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[Figure:] . . . . . . . . . . A . . . . .

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[Figure:] Ka-ba ho . . . ka - pī . . .

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[Figure:] . . . Ka-ba ho . . ka-pī .

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[Figure:] . Ka-ba ho . . ka-pī . . .

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[Figure:] . . . Ka-ba ho . . ka-pī . .

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[Figure:] Ka-ba ho . . . ka-pī . . .

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Three other Hindu forms are the *Sargam* (for Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma), called also *svarāvarta*, or *surāvarta*, and in the South *Svarā*, a passage sung to the Sol-fa names instead of to words, taking the place of our cadenza; the *Tarāna* (*Tillāna*), the same thing with drum-words instead of Sol-fa syllables, and the *Trivaṭa*, the same thing to nonsense-words; and lastly the *Caturaṅga* (‘in four sections’) consisting of *Khyāl*, *Tarāna*, *Sargam*, and *Trivaṭa*.

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The *Thumri*, love-song, is of Hindu origin. It is in the Vraj *bhāṣa*. Vraj is the district round Agra and Mathurā, the scene of Krishna’s juvenile adventures. The music is lively and adapted to pantomime or dancing. The subjects of *Thumri*’s are: (1) beseeching the lover to be propitious, (2) lamentation over his absence, (3) imprecation of rivals, (4) laments over the watchfulness of the mother-in-law and sisters-in-law who prevent meetings with the lover, and over the tinkling bells of anklets imposed by jealous husbands to prevent clandestine visits, (5) appeals to female friends (*Sakhīs*) for help to secure an interview, (6) *Sakhīs* reminding their friend of the appointment and exhorting her to persevere.

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The typical Mohammedan song is the *Tappa*, see pp. 188, 189. The trill (Hindost., *mūrki*; Urdu, *zamzama*), considered to be suitable to the female voice, of which the *Tappa* is full, and the marked rhythm are the Mohammedan contribution. The Mohammedan invasions did for India what the dissolution of the monasteries and the Civil War did for English music (see p. 84). The *Tappa* is exclusively in Hindi and Panjābī. It recites the loves of Hīr and Ranjha. It was brought to perfection by the songstress Shori (reign of Mahmud Shah, circ. 1700). It consists, like most Hindostani songs, of two movements (*tūk*), the *Astai* and *Antara*. The *Rekhtu*, another form of it, contains up to a dozen couplets. Other Mohammedan songs are the *Ghazal* (words Urdu and Persian) and the *Dādra* (confined to the lower classes). Both are in 6/8 time, but commonly syncopated, ♪ ♪ ♫ ♪. In the *Ghazal* the lover makes a woful ballad to his mistress’s eyebrow:

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Why not praise your moles more than the stars!
Those are the ornaments of the cheeks of my beloved.
The white of early dawn radiates from your cheek;
The darkness of the night is a part of your waving hair.
Since I was fated to moan in separation, O God,
Why did I fall in love with one so beautiful?
Your eyes with their long lashes were quite enough,
Their side glances were not necessary for my annihilation.
Do you not understand that you will be alone after killing me?
Yet even the dust of my grave will cleave to you in my stead.
The times are such that, in spite of all that I have said and sung
there is no justice in this world.

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There are also songs of local fame such as the *Abhāngas*, *Omvis*, and *Povāḍas* of the Maratha Tuka Rām, the first two religious, the last warlike; and the *Karkhās*, the war-songs of the Rājputs.

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The *Kīrtanam* and the *Khyāl* that have been given above represent the highest flights of the professional musicians (*Ustāds*). Ordinary singers are content with humbler songs; and the following have been selected, out of twice their number in the books of the Poona Gayan Samāj (singing school), many of them for their beauty, others in order to give an idea of the principal Rāgs and Tāls.