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South-Indian Images of Gods and Goddesses c9: Chapter IV. Siva

South-Indian Images of Gods and Goddesses c9

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Contents

Chapter IV. Siva

I

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Siva temples. Siva is the third member of the Hindu Triad and in Southern India is more widely worshipped than Vishnu. Hundreds of Siva temples of historic fame are found in Southern India, round which are centred traditions of Saiva saints whose period may be assigned roughly to the seventh century A.D. One noticeable peculiarity of these ancient Siva temples is that they enshrine within them images of Vishnu as also of various other gods of the Hindu Pantheon, whereas Vishnu temples are exclusive in this respect. Exception must, however, be made in the case of some very old Vishnu temples¹ sung in the hymns of the *Nālāyiraprabandham* which are as ancient as the corresponding Saiva scriptures collectively called *Dēvāram*. Here we find Siva and Vishnu often mentioned together as located in the same temple and, in a higher philosophical sense, as forming different aspects of one and the same Divine Energy.

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¹ E.g. Tirumala and Kadalmallai.

II

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Siva-linga. Siva is generally worshipped in the form of the phallus (*linga*) fixed on a pedestal. The phallic cult has been traced to very ancient times, its origin, however, being still involved in mystery. The worship of the creative energy of God, interpreted by the sense-perception of man and represented by the symbols *yōni* and *linga* in union, has apparently been as old as man himself. Whatever may be the origin of linga-worship, there is no doubt that it has come to be recognized like the Vaishnavite *Sāligrāma* described above, a perfect symbol of the formless, all-pervading Divine Being, unlimited by time and space. The *Skānda-Purāna* says:—"The sky is the shaft and the earth its pedestal; all gods dwell in the *linga*;

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since the whole creation finds its origin and rest there, it receives the name linga."¹ In the introduction to his translation of the Vishnu-Purāna (p. lxix) Professor H. H. Wilson makes the following remarks on the linga-worship in India: "The linga is twofold, external and internal. The ignorant who need a visible sign, worship Siva through a 'mark' or 'type' which is the proper meaning of the word linga—of wood or stone; but the wise look upon this outward emblem as nothing and contemplate in their minds the invisible inscrutable type which is Siva himself. Whatever may have been the origin of this form of worship in India, the notions upon which it was founded according to the impure fancies of European writers are not to be traced even in the Saiva Purānas." Mr. Havell thinks that it "was in all probability originally derived from the votive stūpa of Buddhism."² If Saivism is, however, granted to be older in its origin than Buddhism—the Sākyas themselves among whom Buddha was born being mentioned as having Siva for their tutelar deity³—this theory cannot be upheld. Various forms of the linga are worshipped, from the crude uncut conical gneiss usually believed to be svayambhū or self-born⁴ to the highly polished and hand-made shaft of 8, 16, 32 or more facets of the Pallava period.

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¹ In Sivarahasya, a chapter of Saura-samhitā, it is stated that the linga has a fivefold significance and denotes the primeval energy of the Creator. At the end of the creation all gods find their resting place in the linga,—Brahmā being absorbed into the right, Janārdana (Vishnu) into the left and Gāyatrī into the heart.

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² Ideals of Indian Art, p. 87.

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³ See Epigraphia Indica, Vol. V, p. 3.

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⁴ The Silparatna describes this to be a long or short shaft of shattered appearance, flat like a board and many cornered with crooked horns. Bāna is another kind of linga which is shaped by nature and not by the chisel.

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Lingas, whether self-born or artificial are equally venerated, the latter being associated as regards their origin with the Sun, Moon, the Lords of the quarters or ancient sages of bygone millenniums. The linga is generally fixed in a circular or quadrangular receptacle on a high monolithic pedestal known as yōni, pānivattam or āvadaiyār.

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It is a common adage that Siva is as fond of bathing as Vishnu is fond of decoration and the surface of the pedestal which receives the linga is so fashioned as to drain off the large quantity of water⁵ poured over the god every day from a copper vessel with a hole at its bottom, hung directly over the shaft. In a linga considered as a symbol of Brahman, the quadrangular bottom of the shaft is believed to represent Brahmā, the octagonal middle Vishnu and the circular upper portion Siva.¹ Sometimes a single linga is known by the name Sahasra ("the thousand")-linga (fig. 46). It is divided into twenty-five facets, each of these latter having miniature representations of forty lingas and making up thus the number one thousand.

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⁵ According to the Mayamata all kinds of pedestals, whatever may be their pattern, must have a duct on their left side to carry off the surface water. These ducts are to be well decorated.

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¹ The sirōvartana or the shaping of the top of the linga which, according to the Silparatna, may be cucumber-like, umbrella-like, crescent-like, egg-like or bubble-like, distinguishes the four different lingas worshipped by the four castes. The same work sets down that images may also be carved on the linga. Superior lingas are stated to vary from 7 to 9 cubits in height. Fixed lingas are worshipped in temples and movable lingas in houses.

III

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Round the sanctum of a Siva temple, on its outer wall, are usually enshrined in specially formed niches the images of Gaṇapati and Dakshināmūrti on the south, Lingōdbhava (or sometimes, Vishnu) on the west, and Brahmā and Durgā on the north. In the enclosing verandah round the central shrine may be installed the images of the sixty-three Saiva Saints, lingas which devout adherents might choose to establish for the merit of themselves or of their ancestors, the nine Planets (Navagrahas), which, since the time astrology was established in India, have been receiving divine homage, and a host of other gods and goddesses such as Kumāra (Skanda), Vīrabhadra, Bhairava, etc. Natarāja or Sabhāpati "the lord of the divine congregation" is placed in a separate shrine, generally the Sabhā-mandapa or "the assembly hall." The goddess Pārvatī, the consort of Siva, who receives all kinds of fanciful names and surnames according to local traditions, is also enshrined separately. Sometimes it is found that every important subordinate deity has a separate shrine for itself, smaller, of course, in size than the sanctum.

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It may be noted that, while worship is offered in the central shrine of a Siva temple only to the formless stone linga, for processional purposes images made of metal are used; and these are of various forms and go by various names, such as Sōmāskanda, Vrishārūdha, Gangādhara, Kalyānasundara, Ardhanāri, Bhikshātana, Natarāja, etc. Instances are not uncommon where images of Siva in one of his processional forms receives more attention from the worshippers than the linga itself. In Chidambaram, for example, the image of Natarāja receives more attention and is more famous than the movable linga of pebble which is known as Ratnasabhāpati, or the stone linga of Mūlasthāna. At Bhikshāndārkōyil in the Trichinopoly district the mendicant form of Siva is worshipped. Ardhanāri is the god worshipped at Tiruchchengōdu (Salem) and so is the bronze image of Somāskanda (under the name Tyāgarāja) worshipped at Tiruvārūr.

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FIG. 46.—Sahasra-linga ; Tiruvottiyūr.

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Before describing some of the popular Siva-images¹ it may be useful to give a general description of Siva when he is represented in the form of an image. The common name then applied to him is Rudramūrti.² He has four hands, of which the two upper ones hold the dhakkā (kettle-drum) and the deer, the two lower hands showing the abhaya and the varada postures. His matted hair is made up in the form of a crown (jatāmakuta) on whose left shines the crescent of the moon and whose right is decorated with the jewel known as arka-pushpa. The face of a woman (i.e., of the goddess Gangā representing the river Ganges) appears over the matted hair, on the right side. He has three eyes, which represent the Sun, Moon and Fire, the last being on the forehead. He is clothed with a tiger skin above his knees and wears an undergarment and a scarf and the usual ornaments, necklace and torque, girdle round the waist, wristlets, waist-zone, armlets, arm-rings, finger-rings set with gems, anklets, and the sacred thread. The left ear of the god wears a woman's ornament called lamba-patra, while the right wears a man's ornament called makara-kundala. The left side of the neck is marked with the blue scar (caused by his having swallowed the poison kālakūta³). This general form of Siva may be represented either standing or seated on the lotus-pedestal with an aureola, and with or without his consort Pārvatī on the left side. The pedestal may also sometimes be the mahā-pitha, when, instead of the aureola behind the image, there may be the celestial tree (kalpa-vriksha).

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¹ Sixteen of these are mentioned in the Silpasāra. They are :- Sukhāsana, Vaivāhika, Umāsahita (according to the Mayamata Umāskanda), Vrishārūdha, Tripurāntaka or Purāri, Natarāja, Chandrasēkhara, Ardhanāri, Harihara, Chandēśvara (Mayamata gives Chandēśānugraha), Kāmāri, Kālanāsa, Dakshināmūrti, Bhikshātana, Sadāśiva (Mayamata gives Mukhalinga) and Lingōdbhava. The Kārānāgama mentions twenty-five.

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² Hēmādri describes Rudra as riding on a bull and having five faces all of which are mild-looking, except the one on the right side of the central face. He has ten arms and wears garlands of skulls.

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³ See below, p. 137 f., under Srīkantha.

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Standing images of Siva generally belong to the class known as Ashtamūrtis or Ekādasa-Rudras. The former have generally four hands and three eyes and wear the jaṭāmakuta. The fore-arms exhibit the protecting and the boon-giving postures; while the hind arms hold the tanka and the antelope. The Ekādasa-Rudras are almost similar to Rudramūrti in form, with the black scar on the neck, the crescent on the head and the scarf of tiger-skin. In place of the dhakkā in the right upper hand is seen the axe (parasu). A form of Siva combining five bodies in one is known as Panchadēhamūrti. Though not found in any of the temples examined so far, it is often mentioned in the Tanjore inscriptions as having been installed in the Rājarājēsvara (i.e., the modern Brihadīsvara) temple by the Chōla king Rājarāja or his subordinates, in the first quarter of the eleventh century A.D. The Panchadēhamūrti consisted of five images, four of which stood in the four directions and the fifth was placed in the middle, its head being higher in level than the others.² One of these was called Aghōra. The linga with five faces called Panchamukha-linga is only the five-bodied Panchadēhamūrti translated in terms of the symbolical phallus.³ It has the heads of four Siva-images figured on its four sides. The illustration from Tiruvānaikkāval (fig. 47) does not show any face at the top. The Skānda-Purāna mentions a seated form of Siva called Mahākailāsa or Mahā-Sadāsiva which is represented with twenty-five faces and fifty hands, wears a garland of skulls and is clothed in tiger's skin.

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² Jaina images called Chaturmukha or Chaumukhi are often made of a single stone. The four identical images on the four sides are surmounted by a series of umbrellas common to all, which appear like the spire of a temple (see Epigraphia Indica, Vol. X, p. 115). The Buddhists also seem to have possessed such figures; see Nagendra Natha Vasu's Mayūrabhanja, p. 41.

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³ A linga placed at the entrance into an old Siva temple at Raichūr (Hyderabad State) shows a combination of five lingas, four on the sides and one at the top.

V

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Images answering to the two names Natarāja and Sabhāpati, in the Hindu Pantheon, are identical in design. Natarāja (the prince of dancers) is the well-known dancing form of god Siva. It has four arms and a body besmeared with ashes. The back arm on the right side holds the kettle-drum (udukkai, as it is called in Tamil) while the other presents the raised palm of protection (abhaya). Of the pair on the left, the upper holds a fire-pot and the lower is bent round FIG. 47.— Panchamukha-linga ; Tiruvānaikkāval.

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¹ According to Hēmādri these may be substituted by the club and the trident.

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across the breast to the right side, its fingers gracefully pointing below, towards the left leg which is raised in a dancing posture. The position of this hand is known as gaja-hasta, “the elephant-trunk.” The ecstatic and violent nature of the dance, described as Ānanda-tāndava in the sequel, whirling quickly round on one leg, placed on the back of the demon Musalagan or Apasmāra¹, is indicated by the matted hair (jatā) stretching out on both sides of the head in wavy lines one above the other and by the cloth, partly tied round the waist and partly thrown over the left shoulder, also flying in the air (fig. 48). The right hand which shows the abhaya has on its wrist a serpent, which is the usual ornament of Siva and may have I, 3, 5 or 7 hoods. Another serpent, in the hand of the demon below, is explained by Mr. Havell (Ideals of Indian Art, p. 79) to be the corresponding wrist ornament on the left arm which had dropped down in the dance. We are told in the Kāsyapa-Silpa of the Amsumat-Tantra that a serpent with raised hood is to be shown playing near Apasmāra on his left side, the right hand of the demon pointing towards it (vyāla-mudrā?). The head of Siva wears peacock’s feathers, or an ornament fashioned like them, which is a special characteristic of the image. The aureola (prabhā), which every metallic image necessarily has, is, in this case, somewhat peculiar and significant, being surmounted all round with flames of fire similar to the one which is held in the pot or cup in one of the two left arms of the image.² The pedestal on which the figure rests is a double lotus flower placed back to back. Sometimes the jatās are not spread out but are tied and made up in the form of jatāmakuta (fig. 49).

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¹ Rai Bahadur V. Venkayya describes him s a hideous malignant dwarf, who sprang from the sacrificial fire of the rishis of the Dārukāvana forest and was sub-dued by Siva by being pressed under the tip of his foot (S.I.I. Vol. II, Introduc-tion, p. 33, footnote). Perhaps he is the personification of the disease epilepsy wherein the victim is enveloped in complete mental darkness.

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² The Silparatna remarks that the aureola of Natarāja represents the ravi-mandala or ‘the sun’s disc.” This perhaps accounts for the flaming rays proceed-ing from the aureola.

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Siva is said to dance in the evening in the presence of the goddess Pārvatī in order to relieve the sufferings of the dēvas. The dance of Natarāja is believed to symbolize the action of cosmic energy in creating, preserving and destroying the visible universe. The Purānas say that during these dances the whole congregation of gods, demigods and saints present themselves to render their obeisance to Siva. Hence the name Sabhāpati, “the lord of the assembly" of gods.¹ The asterism Ārdrā occurring in the bright half of the solar month Mārgali (December-January) is sacred to Natarāja. All Siva temples celebrate a festival on that occasion by taking out in procession miniature representations of Natarāja or, where such do not exist, the chief processional image of Siva. In Chidambaram, of course, where the worship of Natarāja is the most prominent and where the Sabhā-mandapa (assembly hall) is covered with gold plate, the festival is the grandest held in the year.

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¹ The Kāraṇāgama has the following about Sabhāpati:— "On the top of the Kailāsa mountain, in front of the goddess Gauri (Pārvatī) who is seated on a jewelled throne, Siva with the crescent on his head dances in the evenings. All the devas attend the dance; Brahmā plays on cymbals; Hari (Vishnu), on a pataha; Bhāratī (Sarasvatī), on the lute; the Sun and Moon, on flutes; Tumburu and Nārada supply vocal music; and Nandi and Kumāra (Skanda) beat drums." The Mayamata also mentions other gods and goddesses in the congregation, such as Vighnēsa (Vināyaka), Kālī and the Seven Mothers. It adds that Siva then performs the dance called Bhujangatrāsita with the serpent Karkōtaka on him; see Burgess's Elura Cave Temples, Plate XLIII, fig. 5.

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FIG. 48.—Natarāja (metal); Panchanadakkulam. D.85.

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FIG. 49. — Natarāja (metal) ; Rāmēsvaram.

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Two main forms of dancing Siva may be distinguished: one with the raised leg as shown in the illustrations given above and the other with the same lifted up higher, to the level of the head. The latter is called Ūrdhva-tāndava—a dance which is locally believed to have been first performed by Siva at Tiruvālangādu near Arkōnam. The origin of this form of dance is as follows. There was once a dispute between Siva and his consort Kālī as to who was better in the art of dancing. Siva danced many a dance and Kālī successfully followed him; till at last, in order to suppress her pride, Siva lifted up one of his legs to the level of his crown and danced on. Kālī was too modest to imitate Siva in this performance and she accepted the superiority of Siva (fig. 50). Images of Natarāja are sometimes also seen with a small antelope prancing on his left side near the foot, the Gangā (Ganges) and the crescent decorating the head,² the sages Patanjali (with the serpent-body, fig. 51) and Vyāghrapāda (with tiger's feet, fig. 52) worshipping on either side and the goddess Pārvatī standing on the left.

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² The description of the image of Ādavallān (i.e., "the expert dancer," Natarāja) given in the Tanjore Inscriptions, mentions "four arms, nine braids of hair (jatā), the goddess Gangā-bhattārakī on the braided hair and seven flower garlands. The goddess Umāparamēsvari who formed a part of the group was standing on a separate pedestal." Another image of a similar description in the same temple was Tanjai-Alagar with whom was connected also the figure of a Ganapati. Of the sages Patanjali and Vyāghrapāda who usually accompany the dancing image of Natarāja, the Tanjore Inscriptions describe the former as a solid image which measured "three-quarters and one-eighth (of a mulam) in height from the tail to the hoods (phana). It had five hoods; one face in the midst of these hoods, one crown (makuta), two divine arms, above the navel, a human body, and below the navel three coils"; (S.I.I., Vol. II, Introduction,

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FIG. 50.--Ūrdhva-tāndava; Tirappanandāl.

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ANANDA-TĀNDAVA. The Āgamas speak of seven dancing postures of Siva. The first, called Ānanda-tāndava or the joyous dance, has been described above.

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SANDHYĀ-TĀNDAVA. The second is his evening dance Sandhyā-tāndava.¹ In this form the demon Apasmāra is absent and the symbols in the two left arms are the peacock-feathers and the pose of wonder called vismaya.

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¹ According to the Silpasangraha and the Mayamata, the dance is performed under the vata or the banyan tree.

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UMĀ-TĀNDAVA. The third is the Umā-tāndava, i.e., dance with his consort Umā. In this Siva has two more arms, the additional right hand holding the trident (trisūla) and the three left hands exhibiting the skull, vismaya, and the gaja-hasta. The left leg is placed on Apasmāra and the right leg is stretched towards the left, and the goddess Umā stands on the left side.

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GAURĪ-TĀNDAVA. The fourth, Gaurī-tāndava, is almost similar to the first, but in one of the left hands of the god is held a serpent. Nandi stands on the right side and Gaurī (Pārvatī) is on the left.²

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² This same dance is described in the Mayamata as Bhujangalalita in which by quick changes in the position of the legs, the fire in the hand is blown into a blaze, and the braided locks are spread out into five, seven or nine. On the left side stands Vishnu in place of Gaurī, and on the right Nandi.

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KĀLIKĀ-TĀNDAVA. In the fifth form, called Kālikā-tāndava, the god has only two eyes, but eight arms. Three of the right arms hold the trident, noose and kettle-drum and the corresponding left hold the skull, fire-pot and the bell; the two remaining arms exhibit the abhaya on the right and gaja-hasta on the left (fig. 53).³

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³ In the illustrations the weapons and symbols are seen just as they are mentioned in the Āgamas. The position of the legs in the one, and the abhaya and the gaja-hasta poses in the other, are, however, reversed.

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TRIPURA-TĀNDAVA. The dance of Siva, with sixteen arms and as many symbols, having Gaurī and Skanda on the left and right sides respectively,⁴ receives the name Tripura-tāndava.

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⁴ The Silparatna says that Skanda stands on the same side as Gaurī holding her by the hand, and shows fear, love and wonder in his face.

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SAMHĀRA-TĀNDAVA. The last dance called Samhāra-tāndava "the death-dance" shows the god with three eyes and eight arms. The left leg is placed on Apasmāra and the right leg is raised. In the right

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p. 33). This description closely agrees with the figure of Patanjali on the eastern gōpura of the Natarāja temple at Chidambaram. On the same gōpura is the image of Vyāghrapāda in which the sage is represented as having tiger's claws on both his hands and feet. The sage is carrying on his right shoulder a hook and a flower basket.

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FIG. 51. — Patanjali ; Chidambaram.

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FIG. 52.—Vyāghrapāda ; Chidambaram.

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FIG. 53.—Kālikā-tāndava (metal); Nallūr.

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hands are seen the *abhaya*, trident, noose and the kettle-drum; the left hands exhibit the skull and the fire-pot and the postures *vismaya* and *gaja-hasta*. On the right and left sides respectively are Nandi and Gaurī.

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Other *Agamas* again, refer to 108 dancing forms of Siva nine of which are said to be celebrated. Of these latter the only one that deserves to be noted is that in which the god has his right leg raised straight up so as to reach the top of the crown (*ushnisha*). Perhaps, this is the *Ūrdhva-tāndava*, described already. He may have four, eight or sixteen arms.

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No account of Natarāja could be complete without a short history of Chidambaram and its temple. Tradition has it that years ago a king from the north, called Simhavarman, came south on a pilgrimage. All this part of the country was then one huge forest. The king happened to bathe in a well, and immediately found himself transformed into a bright golden figure. He assumed the name Hiranyavarman "the gold-armoured" on that account and covered with gold the Siva temple which he discovered near that well. It is stated that before him the sages Patanjali and Vyāghrapāda had worshipped there. Simhavarman and Hiranyavarman are Pallava names and denote that the origin of the temple may be roughly traced to that period. Historically, it was the Chōla king Parāntaka I, surnamed Vīra-Chōla and Vīra-Nārāyana (A.D. 907 to about 951) who covered the Chidambaram temple with gold, perhaps for the first time. Successive Chōla kings, after him, are known to have added to the grandeur of it¹. A later Pallava chief of the thirteenth century A.D. called Perunjingadēva boasts of having conquered the four quarters and utilized the booty secured, in decorating the eastern *gōpura* of the Chidambaram temple which he had himself constructed.² The great Vijayanagara king Krishnadēvarāya of the sixteenth century A.D. built the north *gōpura* of the same temple after his victorious return from a campaign in the north. It is well known that as a sacred place of pilgrimage Chidambaram is intimately connected with the Saiva saint Mānikyavāchaka (Mānikkavāsagar), the Pariah saint Nandanār—both of whom attained their salvation there—and with the Saiva philosopher and scholar Appaya-Dīkshita who was much devoted to that temple. The place is mentioned in the Saiva hymns of the Dēvāram, in which it is called Tillai. The 3,000 Brāhmana families of Tillai (which may have once lived there but have at present dwindled down to a few hundreds) claim Siva to be one of them and worship Natarāja as their family deity.

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¹ The devotion of Rājarāja I to the god at Chidambaram and the rich presents which he must have made to the temple there, evidently earned for him the titles Srī-Rājarāja and Sivapādasēkhara; Rai Bahadur Venkayya thinks that Rājarāja built at Tanjore the big temple of Rājarājēsvara (i.e., Brihadīsvara) in order to commemorate the conferring of these titles. He consecrated therein the god Siva and called him Ādavallān, i.e., the expert dancer, after the famous Natarāja of Chidambaram.

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² It is from this *gōpura* that the best illustrations are secured. The *gōpura* is very rich in sculptures and has various forms of Siva and his attendant gods. In this *gōpura* are also found illustrations of the 108 postures in dancing, mentioned in the *Bhāratīya-Nātyasāstra* (vide Madras Epigraphical Report for 1913-14, Plates I to IV). They are appropriately meant to be connected with Natarāja the king of dancers.

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The Āgamas mention, as already stated,¹ twenty-five sportive forms (līlā-mūrtis) of Siva, most of which are usually met with in South-Indian temples. One of the more important of these is Dakshināmūrti. In Chōla temples this image generally occupies a niche in the south wall of the central shrine. Dakshināmūrti or Dharma-Vyākhyānamūrti is the form of Siva engaged in yōga or philosophic contemplation. Once upon a time Daksha, the father-in-law of Siva, insulted him and his consort Umā, by not inviting them to a sacrifice which he was performing. Umā nevertheless went uninvited to her father's house, but being grossly neglected jumped into the sacrificial fire-pit and destroyed herself. Siva was furious; he created out of a lock of his hair the terrible Vīrabhadra (see below, p. 155) who destroyed Daksha. Siva then retired to a forest with the resolve not to marry again and sat underneath a banyan tree deeply engaged in meditation. The gods were much concerned; for it meant that the world would loose the benefit of Siva's direct intervention in its affairs. They accordingly induced Kāma,² the god of love, to stir up once again in the mind of Siva the dormant embers of love. The fool-hardy Kāma incautiously approached the god engaged in meditation and shot his flowery arrows at him and hit him. Siva then opened his eye of fire and looked straight at Kāma, when lo! he was at once reduced to a heap of ashes.³ Still Kāma had succeeded. For, soon afterwards Siva gave up his

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¹ Above, p. 76, footnote 1.

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² Described above, p. 62.

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³ This incident has given rise to the recognition of another sportive form of Siva called Kāmāri or Kāmadahanamūrti. The scene is depicted on one of the pillars of an unfinished mandapa near the tank in the Ēkāmrēśvara temple at Conjeeveram. According to the Kāraṇāgama, Kāmadahanamūrti has four arms in which are seen the abhaya, varada, a deer and the tanka. He is seated on a lotus pedestal and is fierce in appearance.

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DAKSHINĀ MŪRTI.

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penance and married once again Umā, who had now incarnated as Pārvatī, the beautiful daughter of Himavat (the Himalayas). This is the story of Dakshināmūrti.¹ He is always conceived to be a youthful teacher, seated beneath a banyan tree, teaching aged pupils and removing their doubts by his very silence.

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¹ Havell, Ideals of Indian Art, p. 83f.

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The general posture of the images of Dakshināmūrti show him with his right leg bent vertically at the knee and placed on the body of the dark demon Apasmāra² and the left leg bent across so as to rest upon the right thigh. He has a calm countenance, indicative of perfect peace within. His matted locks are either dishevelled or are formed into a jatāmakuta tied together by a serpent (fig. 54). The body is besmeared with ashes and all the usual ornaments of Siva decorate him. The sages Nārada, Jamadagni, Vasistha and Bhrigu sit at his feet on the right side, receiving instruction, while Bharadvāja, Saunaka, Agastya and Bhārgava sit on the left. The bull-vehicle of the god, the denizens of the forest, Kinnaras and other demi-gods are also seen on the Kailāsa mountain on which the god is seated.³ His right fore-arm points the jnāna-mudrā (the pose conveying philosophical knowledge) and the back arm holds the rosary (or, the serpent); the left fore-arm shows the boon-conferring (varada) attitude or is sometimes freely stretched, the back of the palm resting in either case on the left knee. Some illustrations show a book in the place of the varada posture. The remaining hand on the left side holds the fire-pot, the deer, the kettle-drum or the rosary. When Dakshināmūrti holds in his fore-arms the lute (vinā) and changes the posture of his left leg—apparently for keeping the vinā in position—he is called Vīnādhara-Dakshināmūrti (fig. 55). Jnānamūrti is another form of the same god in which the symbol jnāna-mudrā of the right fore-arm is raised close to the heart with the palm of the hand turned inwards. The name Yōgamūrti (or Yōga-Dakshināmūrti) is applied when the legs crossing each other from the root of the thigh are held in position by the belt yōgapatta, passing round the waist and the

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² The Silpasangraha mentions a serpent playing by the side of Apasmāra.

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³ The description of Dakshināmūrti given in the Tanjore inscriptions is very interesting and instructive. They say that the mountain on which the god is seated "had two peaks on which there were two Kinnaras and two Kinnaris. Under the foot of the god was Musalagan. On the mountain were four rishis, a snake, two Karnaprāvritas (i.e., devotees of Siva (?) mentioned in the Rāmāyana, who had ear-lobes with holes big enough to allow their hands to be passed through in the act of worshipping) and a tiger. A banyan tree was also on the mountain and had nine main branches and forty-two minor ones. A wallet was suspended from the tree and a bunch of peacock's feathers was one of the accompaniments of the god"; S.I.I., Vol. II, Introduction, p. 33.

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VĪNĀDHARA-DAKSHINĀ-MŪRTI, JNĀNAMŪRTI and YŌGA-MŪRTI.

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FIG. 54.—Dakshināmūrti; Āvūr.

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FIG. 55.—Vīṇādhara-Dakṣiṇāmūrti ; Chidambaram.

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fore-legs, a little below the knee. The front arms are in this case, stretched out and rest freely on the knees, while the back arms hold the rosary and the water pot. The illustration (fig. 56) differs, however, in the symbols. In this, the upper hands hold the water-pot and the antelope and the lower hands the rosary (with *jñāna-mudrā*) and the book. A fine old picture (fig. 57) coming from Tiruvengavāsal (Puduk-kōttai State) shows Dakshināmūrti in a different position and with different symbols.

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Lingōdbhava “the linga-manifestation,” is a familiar figure of Siva seen on the west wall of the central shrine of Siva temples built in Chōla times. As his name implies, he is represented within a huge linga, the portion of the feet below the ankles being hidden in the linga. Brahmā in the form of a swan is seen soaring up on the left side of Siva; while, on the right side, Vishnu is delving below into the depths of the earth in the form of a boar.¹ Also these gods (i.e., Brahmā and Vishnu) in their true glory stand on either side of Siva with folded hands. The figure emanating from the middle of the linga (fig. 58) has four hands like Chandrasēkhara (described below) and holds in its back arms the axe and the antelope and in the front hands, the *abhaya* and the *varada* postures. In the illustration given, the left hand is, however, seen resting freely on the waist. In the Tanjore inscriptions, Lingōdbhava is mentioned by the name Lingapurānadēva, i.e., the god of the Linga-Purāna which describes the greatness of the linga. The story runs that a dispute arose between Brahmā and Vishnu as to who is the greater of the two. Siva told them that whoever first saw the top or the bottom of his own fiery linga-form ² and came back to report, he would be considered the greater. Brahmā soared on his swan to see the top of the Siva-linga, while Vishnu as a boar dug down and down to see its bottom. Ages passed away and neither came to his goal. At last Brahmā saw one *kētaki* flower coming down. It had fallen from Siva’s head ages ago. Brahmā suborned it to give false evidence and then came back and uttered a lie, saying that he had seen the top of the linga, citing the *kētaki* flower as his witness. Siva knew the lie and cursed Brahmā that he should thenceforward go without any worship in temples. Brahmā had five heads at this time.

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¹ The swan and the boar are in some pictures found to be half-man and half-animal.

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² On the east main *gōpura* of the Chidambaram temple is an image of Lingōdbhava surrounded by flames of fire.

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FIG. 56.—Yōga-Dakshināmūrti ; Conjeeveram.

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FIG. 57.—Dakshināmūrti; Tiruvengavāsal.

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FIG. 58.—Lingōdbhava ; Tanjore.

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Siva also cut off the head which uttered the lie.¹ The flower ketaki too, which abetted the crime, was excluded from the flowers dear to Siva. On an apology being offered, the latter was however accepted, as a special case, during the worship on the night of the Sivarātri festival which falls on the fourteenth day of the dark half of Māgha (January-February) in each year and is held sacred in honour of the linga-manifestation of Siva.

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¹ The Kāraṇāgama mentions a sportive form of Siva cutting off one of the heads of Brahmā. The image is stated to have four arms holding the thunderbolt and the axe in the right hand and the trident and Brahmā's skull in the left.

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Perhaps, images called Ēkapādamūrti or Ēkapāda-ĒKAPADA Trimūrti, in which the gods Brahmā and Vishnu, with folded MŪRTI. hands and characteristic symbols, are represented as proceeding out of the body of Siva at his waist as in the Tiruvottiyūr image (fig. 59) or from behind his knee as in the image from Tiruvānaikkāval (fig. 60) are either developments of Lingōdbhava wherein the superiority of Siva over the two other members of the Hindu Triad was established, or an invention of the Indian sculptor in which is symbolized the underlying unity of the three gods.² The Kāraṇāgama mentions Ēkapāda mūrti as one of the sportive forms of Siva and describes him as having one foot, three eyes and four arms in which are seen the tanka and deer and the varada and the abhaya postures. On the right and left sides of Siva, almost touching his shoulders, are Brahmā and Vishnu holding their symbolical weapons in two hands and worshipping Siva with the other two.

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² Accordingly, we sometimes find Vishnu occupying the central place. On p. 73 above, footnote 1, it was noted that the goddess Gāyatrī was absorbed into the centre of the linga while Brahmā and Vishnu entered the sides of it.

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The single foot which is the characteristic feature of these figures, is, in the case of the Tiruvānaikkāval image, placed on the back of the bull. It is also seen the vehicle of Brahmā, viz., the swan, at the right bottom and, at the corresponding left bottom, the standing Garuda vehicle of Vishnu and a sage—perhaps Nārada. Apparently Ēkapādamūrti has to be connected with Ajaikapād, a name given in the Rig-Vēda to one of the Ēkadasa-Rudras.³

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³ See Nagendra Natha Vasu's Mayūrabhanja, Introduction, p. xxxi.

VIII

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The story of Lingōdbhava introduces us to another form BHIKSHĀ- of Siva, known as Bhikshātana, very often seen in South- TANA. Indian temples. When Siva cut off one of the heads of Brahmā, he incurred the sin of killing a Brāhmana; and the skull of Brahmā, it is stated, stuck to Siva’s palm and would not drop down. In order to get rid of the sin and this incriminating skull, Siva had to wander about as a naked beggar (*bhikshātana*) until he reached the place still known as Brahma-kapālam, on the slopes of the Himalayas, where he was released from the sin and the skull fell down of its own accord.¹ Local chronicles connect Bhikshātana with the Valuvūr and Tirutturaippūndi temples in the Tanjore district, and mention that the god Siva assumed a beautiful naked form and came out as a wandering beggar to test the fidelity of the wives of certain sages of the Dārukāvana forest, who were proud of their chastity. At the same time Vishnu is stated to have taken up the form of Mōhinī in order to tempt the sages. In accordance with this story, we occasionally see naked figures of women and of Mōhinī (fig. 61) depicted in close proximity to Bhikshātana. The tip of the lower right hand of the image touches the mouth of an antelope. The upper right hand holds the kettle-drum. A trident with peacock-feathers (not seen in the illustration fig. 62)²—or a big bunch of them placed across the shoulder, decorates the upper left arm, while the lower left, shows the boon-conferring posture. In it is also seen the *kapāla* (skull). A serpent encircles his waist and he stands on sandals. The right leg is slightly bent (*kunchita*) and the left is firmly placed in the attitude of one inclined to walk on. Above the right ankle is tied a bell (*bhringipāda*) which gives notice of the approach of the divine mendicant. A demon called Kundōdara, with protruding teeth, stands on the left side of the god, carrying on his head a begging bowl. The Bhikshātana-mūrti at Pērūr has eight arms and holds different weapons in each of them³. A fine figure of Bhikshātana (in Tamil, Pichchāndār) is found in a niche on the south wall of the central shrine of the big temple at Tanjore. A copper image of this god, with a goblin carrying the begging bowl and an antelope following, is said to have been presented to that temple by Lōkamahādēvī, the chief queen of Rājarāja I. This god was to witness every day the Sribali ceremony conducted in the temple.

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¹ The *Mahābhārata* refers to a similar story and states that a *rishi* called Mahōdara got himself relieved of the skull of a giant that had stuck to his knee, by bathing in the sacred tank called Kapālamōchana-tīrtha.

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² This image is published in the Archæological Survey Report, Madras, for 1911-12, Plate I, fig. 2, but without the two accompanying figures of the deer and the demon.

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³ The *Mayamata* says that this form of Siva may have four, six or eight arms,

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FIG. 59.—Ēkapāda-Trimūrti ; Tiruvottiyūr.

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FIG. 60.—Ēkapāda-Trimūrti; Tiruvānaikkāval.

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FIG. 61.—Mōhinī (metal) ; Valuvūr.

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FIG. 62.—Bhikshātanamūrti (metal) ; Valuvūr.

IX

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Kankālamūrti is a form closely allied to Bhikshātana and almost similar in appearance. According to the *Mayamata*, Kankālamūrti is draped in a fine cloth and is surrounded by lovely women. In his upper right hand he holds the peacock’s feathers and skeleton (*kankāla*) and in the upper left the *tanka*. A serpent is coiled round his loins; and he has a knife stuck into the girdle on the right side of his waist (figs. 63 and 64). He is generally attended by demons. Birds and beasts follow him in expectation of getting something to eat from his hands. The description given of Kankālamūrti in the *Kāsyapa-Silpa* of the *Amsumat-Tantra* is different. He has a *jatāmakuta*¹ decorated with serpents, the crescent-moon and flowers; he is holding the kettle-drum in his left fore-arm and a stick (to beat it with) in the corresponding right; the other right hand is in the pose *simha-karna* and touches the mouth of the antelope, while the left carries a bunch of peacock’s feathers on a staff. He also wears a necklace of skeletons (*kankāla*) which according to the *Āditya-Purāna* are supposed to be those of Vishnu in his various incarnations. Sometimes he may be represented also as carrying on his shoulder a *kankāla* (skeleton) tied by a rope to the staff.

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¹ The braided hair (*jatā*) of Bhikshātana, on the other hand, is generally found in illustrations, arranged in a circle. *Jatāmakuta* is the arrangement of the *jatas* in the form of a *makuta* or crown. The former is, perhaps, what is known in the Silpa-works as *jatāmandala*.

X

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The form of Siva, decorated as a bridegroom, is called Kalyānasundaramūrti or Vāivāhikamūrti. Siva in this form is represented as a fair youth, with three eyes and four arms. He is clothed in the best of garments and wears a garland of blue lilies. On his right side stands Pārvatī, his bride, whose right hand he holds with his own. In his back hands are seen the symbols, *tanka* (or sometimes the axe) and the black buck. The left lower hand shows the boon-giving posture. His matted locks are made up in the fashion of a *jatāmakuta* on which is stuck the crescent of the moon. The general posture of the god is what is called *samabhanga*, or the medium bend, wherein the figure stands with the right leg slightly bent and the left leg placed firmly on the ground. The goddess on the right side is represented as a fully developed maiden. She has only two hands, one of which holds a lily. Brahmā, having in his four hands the rosary, water-pot, the sacrificial ladle (*srik*) and the spoon (*sruva*) (or, the book), is seated on a lotus flower in front of a square fire-pit facing northwards, and offering oblations to the sacrificial fire, which is burning in front with five flames. Mēnakā and Himavat, the parents of the goddess, are standing to her right, carrying a golden pot, from which they pour water into the hands of Siva and Pārvatī in token of giving away their daughter in marriage to him. The sages Sanaka and Sanandana stand to the left of the god with folded hands. Vishnu is present with the whole congregation of gods and goddesses. This description of Kalyānasundara is found in all its details in a figure from Elephanta. The Kāsyapa-Silpa of the Amsumat-Tantra and the Silpasangraha say that Vishnu in the *tribhanga* attitude faces south and stands on the north side of the sacrificial fire-pit with conch and discus in his back arms. He pours with his two other hands water from a gold pot into the hands of Siva and Pārvatī (fig. 65). The Mayamata describes Pārvatī as standing by the side of Lakshmī. It looks as if Mēnakā and Himavat are sometimes substituted by Lakshmī and Vishnu. A fine image of Kalyānasundara comes from the Chidambaram temple (fig. 66). Svayamvarā is the name given in the Silparatna to the figure of Pārvatī as a bride. She holds a garland of flowers and walks towards Sambhu (Siva) to choose him as her husband.

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FIG. 63.—Kankālamūrti (metal) ; Tenkāsi.

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FIG. 64.—Kankālamūrti; Dhārāsuram.

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FIG. 65.—Kalyāṇasundara ; Madura.

XI

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SŌMĀSKANDA

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Sōmāskanda is the most common of all the sportive forms of Siva. Its design is as old as the Pallava period and it may be found on the back wall of the sanctum immediately behind the linga in almost every temple which pretends to belong to that age. The group, e.g., is found engraved on the back wall of a niche in the second storey of the Dharmarāja-ratha at Mahābalipuram which, according to an inscription cut on the lintel, was apparently intended to be a shrine for the Siva-linga called Atyantakāma-Pallavēśvara. It is also seen on the back wall of the Siva shrine facing the sea, in the “Shore Temple.” The Sāluvankuppam cave, called Atirana-chanda-Pallavēśvara, also has the same image. A similar panel is also found in the Kailāsanātha temple at Kānchī. Later Chōla temples, however, do not show any such panel on the wall behind the linga. On one and the same pedestal are seen Siva and Umā with the child Skanda standing (or seated) between them. Both the god and the goddess are seated comfortably (*sukhāsana*), with one leg (right in the case of Siva and left in the case of Pārvatī) hanging down and the other bent crosswise so as to lie flat on the pedestal. The god holds in his upper hands the *tanka* (or, the axe) and the deer and in the lower exhibits the *varada* and the *abhaya* postures. The goddess holds a lily in her right hand and shows the *varada* or the *kataka* pose¹ in her left (fig. 67). She may sometimes also be represented as resting the palm of her left hand on the pedestal by the side of her left thigh while the right hand, as before, holds the lily. Skanda has the crown *karandamakuta* and holds in one of his hands a flower, a wood-apple or a mango. According to the *Karanagama* the group must be flanked by two standing or seated figures called Bhoga-Sakti and Vira-Sakti on the left and right sides respectively.² It is also stated that the right side of the pedestal on which the god sits is to be slightly higher than the left.

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¹ The actual position of the hand as described in the *Agamas*, however, is *simha-karna* or "lion's ear" with the fingers slightly closing on the palmside.

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² Siva is supposed to have three *Saktis* attached to him, viz., Yoga-Sakti, Bhoga-Sakti and Vira-Sakti; see below, p. 185, footnote 1.

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FIG. 66.—Kalyāṇasundara and Svayamvarā; Chidambaram.

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FIG. 67.—Sōmāskanda (metal); Sivankūdal.

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A photograph from Mahabalipuram (fig. 68) is worth noting in this connexion. It shows Siva in the comfortably seated posture. In his upper hands, however, the symbols, evidently of *tanka* and the deer, are missing. The right lower is in the posture of *abhaya* and the left lower in that of *kataka*. It is also possible that the latter is resting freely on the thigh. Parvati is seated on Siva's left side, turning her face towards him and holding the child Skanda on her knee. In the upper corners are seen flying dwarfs, apparently holding flywhisks in their hands. The whole group is flanked by two four-armed gods raising respectively the upper left and right arms and pointing them towards Siva.

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Among the Mahabalipuram sculptures we find still another scene of Saiva pictures apparently allied to Somaskanda just described, viz., Sukhasana or Umasahita mentioned in footnote 1 on p. 76. Here, on a pedestal supported by two lion-pillars and the recumbent bull between them, is a seated figure of Siva with a robe of ornamental fringes, hanging loosely from above his right shoulder. In his right upper hand he holds a furious serpent. What the position of his left upper hand indicates, is not clear. Of the two other hands, the left lower rests freely on his right leg and the left thigh, while the right lower exhibits a position of the fingers which suggests that the god must have held some weapon. The high *jatamakuta*, the divine halo (circle of light) round the face, the necklaces, pendants, ear-rings, waist-band, rings on hands and a thick chord across the breast representing the Brahmanical thread yajñopavita, are the other jewels seen on the figure of Siva. To the right of Siva's shoulder is Brahmā with the water-pot in one hand and the erect rosary in the other. The sacred thread of Brahmā has four strings. Between the heads of Brahmā and Siva is a circular disc which perhaps represents the Sun. Near the left shoulder of Siva is Vishnu holding the discus and the conch in his two upper hands. Here again, the position of the two lower hands is not clear. The sacred thread of Vishnu has three strings. His crown though high like that of the two other gods is shaped somewhat differently. Pārvatī (Siva's consort) with the child Skanda on her right lap is seated on the left side of Siva. Her left foot is placed on the back of the couchant bull. She as well as her child have only two arms each. Close to her left foot, behind the bull, is a female attendant of Pārvatī, who raises her right hand resting it on the back of the bull. Between the head of the goddess and that of Vishnu is seen what is perhaps to be interpreted as the crescent of the Moon, corresponding to the Sun on the other side. But the short handle attached to it at the bottom seems to show that it may be an umbrella of honour held over the head of the goddess (fig. 69). A similar group, called Umā-Mahēsvara according to Hēmādri, consists of Siva and Pārvatī, the former having eight faces and two hands. The left hand of the god is stretched over the shoulder of the goddess and the right hand of the goddess over that of the god. The Kāranāgama describing this group states that the goddess Pārvatī should be seated on the left side of Siva with the bull in front of them, Indra and other gods behind, Vishnu and Brahmā on the sides and the devotees Bhringi, Nārada, Bāna, Bhairava, Ganapati, Skanda and Vīrēsvara in the eight cardinal points. Rai Bahadur Venkayya considered this description to be that of Rishabhavāhana (Vrishavāhana)¹ mentioned in the next paragraph.

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¹ S.I.I., Vol. II, Introduction, p. 33, footnote 1.

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FIG. 68.—Sōmāskanda; Seven Pagodas.

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FIG. 69.—Umāsahita; Seven Pagodas.

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UMĀ-MAHĒS-VARA.

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XII

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Vrishārūdha is a figure of Siva seated on the bull with the right leg hanging down and the left bent so as to rest on the bull. He has Ganapati on his right side and Gaurī on his left.² He holds in his two upper hands the tanka and the antelope. When, however, Siva is made to stand leaning

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² The Silparatna and the Kāsyapa-Silpa state that more often Gaurī is seen on the right side of the god.

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VRISHA-RŪDHA.

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against the bull and is not mounted on it, the *Kāśyapa-Silpa* calls him Vrishavāhana. In this case the elbow (*kūrpara*) of the right hand of Siva rests on the head of the bull as in the illustrations (figs. 70 and 71).¹ The *Mayamata* also gives the same description, but adds that the bull stands behind the seat on which the god and goddess sit. The right lower hand of Siva holds the trident while the two upper hands hold the axe and the deer.

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¹ The illustrations given show two and four hands respectively for Siva, who standing with his legs crossed and leaning against the back of the bull, has the *kūrpara* of his right hand placed on the head of the bull. A fine image from Ceylon figured as No. 29 in Part II of *Visvakarma* is evidently one of Vrishā-rūdha as described in the *Mayamata*. The trident in the right lower hand, the bull and the goddess are missing.

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Chandrasēkharamūrti² (the crescent-crested lord) may, according to the *Kāśyapa-Silpa* of the *Amsumat-Tantra*, be represented in two different forms, either alone or in company of the goddess Gaurī. When alone, he stands on the pedestal with level feet (*samapāda*), holding the antelope and the kettle-drum (or, axe) in his back arms and presenting the *abhaya* and the *varada* postures in the fore-arms. The crescent decorates the *jaṭāmakuta* of the god, either on its right side or on the left. In other respects the image is a pleasing representation (fig. 72) of the general form of Rudra described above. When accompanied by the goddess he may also be seated (fig. 73). The right lower hand shows the *abhaya* posture and the left lower passes round the back of the yielding goddess and touches her breasts. Some Agamas do not permit the hand to be stretched so far, but only up to the left arm of the goddess. The illustration from Bāgali (fig. 74) answers to this description but holds the trident and the kettle-drum in the upper hands instead of the axe and the deer. The goddess also with her right hand touches the right side of the waist-band of the god from the back and holds a flower in her left. She may also be seen passing her hand over his shoulder. Such figures of Chandrasēkhara are called Ālinganamūrti or the embracing form. They are also known as Pradōshamūrti, since in all well-maintained Siva temples, the image is carried about in procession in the evenings (pradōsha).

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