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Vastu-shastra (Vol. I: Hindu Science of Architecture; Vol. II: Hindu Canons of Iconography and Painting) v1.c55: Chapter XI: Concluding Remarks

Vāstu-śāstra (Vol. I: Hindu Science of Architecture; Vol. II: Hindu Canons of Iconography and Painting) v1.c55

Language
English

Chapter XI: Concluding Remarks

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The over gratification in our spiritual civilization has done a great harm. In matters mundane or material, our planners have always looked to the West for light and guidance. We have altogether shut our eyes to our technical heritage. Though we have an important section of the Technical Sciences, in the All India Oriental Conference, what impact has it left on our National Reconstruction, especially State-craft and the Engineering and Architectural policy is not very difficult to see. Our Sthāpatya was very scientific. It has lost its tradition. The present writer has done some thing towards the study of this most fascinating branch of Indology by his humble pursuits—vide Vāstuśāstra-research-publications in about six volumes—Canons of Hindu Architecture, Sculpture and Painting etc. etc. The climatic conditions and so many other agelong modes and habits woven in the very texture of Indian life demand that our houses should be so planned as to give us cool shelter, in order to live comfortably and enjoy longivity. Nine-feet ten-feet high houses are a curse these days. Such low-roofed tenements are basically wrong for this hot climate of India. They may be good for cold countries. Accordingly a few suggestions in a popular language are being put before the lovers of Indian architecture, who may take up the question with the Planning Commission for a re-orientation in our Engineering and Architectural policy. My ‘Bhāratīya Vāstuśāstra’ (Hindi work) and Vāstuśāstra Vol. I and II are pointer to advocate this reorientation in our national policy not only for the good of our cultural heritage but also for the good of living and longivity.

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Modern House-Planning and what it can gain from Samarāṅgaṇa Sūtradhāra. From the previous pages a tangible picture of the House Architecture, as presented by Samarāṅgaṇa Sūtradhāra has already emerged. This picture is one of the sublimest heritages of our forefathers. It is upto us to appreciate its beauty and utility. We need a discipline of our senses to make them a fit apparatus for the perfect perception.

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All the vital considerations necessary to make a living healthy and peaceful are bestowed upon the house plans. If material equipments such as furniture, mozaic floors, ingenious door-shutters, beautiful designs of windows, attached bath rooms, curtains and the like are not included in them, we shall not allow that to deter us from having a look at them. The fundamental basis of these plans is purity. This purity includes sanitation, ventilation and lighting—the prime necessities of life. The modern spacious and open varandahas, the sky-clear lawns and compounds, the gardens, the bed, the reception room, the study-room, the worship-room, the store-room, the kitchen and the bath-room, all these can be well provided in the house plans as prescribed by the Samarāṅgaṇa Sūtradhāra.

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The planning of the house and building is one of the finest traits of human civilisation. We know the story of a house—from its origin, the tree-branch structures to the fullest of development, the ostentatious mansions—the palaces of kings and temples of Gods together with the intermediary phases of evolutions, the manifold structures along with their component parts and mouldings, decoration and joinery, masonry and material in their successive stages. What light does it throw on the broad outlook of culture and the humanity at large? The human civilisation, though it has reached its zenith, has not yet attained its crowning glory—the glory of self-realization. It is still far far from its destination. The direction of the journey too, has changed. The struggle, therefore, is keener. Where are we going? Should we lose our soul altogether in our material pursuits. The spirit of man needs to be rediscoverd. “Mortal in the company or the Immortal” is a very old story! How to regain that company? The answer is not far to seek. We have to get rid of the unnaturalness about us. We have to change our direction from the unnatural parapherenalia of life establishment to the simple environments of Nature. For this, let the beginning be made in our living conditions. We should now choose the natural surroundings for our habitation—employ the natural materials in our houses, lead a life of simplicity and austerity. This is only possible when a new orientation is made in our house-planning. Śālā-models as prescribed by the texts like the S. S. can very well serve this end.

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It does not mean that we should bid goodbye to all the advancement that our fore-fathers and the modern engineers and the architects have made in the art of building. The outlook needs a change. As the ancients reserved the superb art-craftmanship only to the buildings, devotional, and memorial, similar consideration should prevail with us. The public buildings, the temples, the town-halls may have edifices of large and sublime structures, but the dwelling houses, unless simple and cheap and laid in the surrounding of Nature, can neither be conducive to healh nor to the peace of mind—the two essentials of good living.

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House planning was never left to the caprice of the individuals in India. It was the responsibility of the state or the ruler to see that a certain minimum standard was adhered to by every house holder in matters of building his house. They were so rigid that they were codified and were given a sanctity of a religious character, so that they may never be violated. What is the present state of affairs? The building byelaws are there. Every house-builder has to get his plan sanctioned by the Municipal Board or the similar other corporation. Despite all this, the results so far, have been simply monstrous. The congestion, lack of sanitation, lack of symmetry and beauty as well as of religiousity (purity) etc. are every where to be seen abunduntly. It is a matter of gratification that in these days the town planning departments are a bit more awakened, but the task facing them is so enormous that, the absence of a clear-cut vision, must work havoc to any fitting solution of the house problem. Now, people have begun to talk of such materials as cost less. Nobody is, now, after the aforesaid grandeur or beauty or comforts. A small place to meet ordinary vital wants is enough. This consciousness, this awakening, this realisation of the grim realities is the most suitable time when we can turn our eyes to the past.

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The Samarāṅgaṇa-Sūtradhāra's śālā-houses can solve our house problem. The material to be used is within the easy reach of all and the accommodation is just to satisfy the essential wants. The śāla-bhavanas can serve any variety of tenement. They can be built, also on a large scale. Some of the modern materials like cement, concrete, if employed, will make the houses last longer. They are best suited to the climate of India. The roofing should never be of reinforced concrete slab, instead the ṣaḍdāruka, tree timber planks obtained from such trees as mango, Mahuva or Neem abounding in every corner of the land should be employed. Walls, for security reasons may be made of brick and lime or brick, sand or cement. If the new townships or suburbs, the branch towns, the Śākhā-nagaras (vide the Town-Planning, the last part of the study) are planned, the houses therein should be planned in rows of śālā-houses, consisting of symmetrical, frontal varandahs, the Alindas together with porticos, the Bhadrās and hind portions the Parisaras. The central spaces are open and are large enough for plantation and vegetation etc.

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Any housing scheme on a large scale is a great burden on the State Exchequer. How to raise the money in crores for a handful of houses on the modern models? This problem can be solved if coordinated and cooperative efforts are made in which the State gives subsidy and the individuals and cooperative-societies also contribute their mite with a zeal and enthusiasm worthy of a great nation to build houses, establish new townships, rejuvenate the vill ges, reorientate the living and revolutionise the character of the country. This is the essence of a planning, be it a house-planning, town-planning or any other planning—the individual, the society and the State, all contributing their shares.

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*N.B.*—This dessertation was submitted about six years ago when in the National Planning no sufficient vigour for building houses and founding new towns was seen. Happily during the 2nd Planning period there has been a marked tendency to encourage building operations and raising new townships. This phase as anticipated by the writer does not however meet his advocacy wherein the National Building Policy should be more in keeping with the past rather than with the present foreign evolutions. Many a town in India today is planned out entirely on foreign pattern. The celebrated capital of the newly emergent Panjab (after partition) Chandigarh is a pointer to it. It is entirely against the genius of the land. Chandigarh has its own architectural pattern which, to the students of Indian architecture, does not appeal. From the practical considerations it may be all right to bid good-bye to the ornamental style of the old, but from the standpoint of cultural considerations we can not afford to forget our past altogether.

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PALACE ARCHITECTURE AND PALACE-PLEASURES

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A—*Palaces*

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B—*Accessory Buildings*

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C—*Accessory pleasure-devices & structures, the yantras etc.*

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D—*Other State buildings or public buildings.*

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We have already pointed out that the buildings in India had at least three broad categories:—the residential houses for common people and the middle class people, the palaces and other gorgeous and magnificent structures and the temples. Accordingly we have devoted three separate parts to these three distinct architectural traditions of our land. We have already treated, howsoever meagrely, the common residential houses, the Śālā-bhavanas in the previous part. Let us now proceed with the palaces and other gorgeous buildings. In Indian tradition the king was as high as a god. He was considered as the fifth Lokapāla. Accordingly the Vimāna buildings or Prāsādas as treated in the texts like Mānasāra, Mayamata and Śilparatna do not make any distinction between the residences of the ‘Taitilas’, the gods and those of the Bhūdevas and Nṛdevas, the Brāhmaṇas and the kings. This is really a loop-hole in the treatment of House-architecture as has been treated in the aforesaid texts. The North Indian texts like the Samarāṅgaṇa and the Aparājita however are credited to rehabilitate the tradition on proper lines by drawing a line of demarcation between the secular buildings, the residential houses of men including the lords of men, the kings and the gods. Even in the former category, both these texts are univocal in bestowing the separate attention to both the kinds of planning namely the popular residential houses and the abodes of kings and nobles. In India or for the matter of any other ancient country, the kings had very high previleges and positions, in accordance to which, their abodes could never be conceived to be simple structures. The citedals, the castles, the gorgeous mansions, the fortified huge establishments—all these comprised the making of a king’s palace. Later on when times were more peaceful and prosperous, these palaces further ramified into two distinct establishments, the residential-cum-administrative set-ups, the Nivāsa-bhavanāni and the pleasure-palaces, the Vilāsa-bhavānani.

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A very unique feature of the planning of palaces is its stereotyped canon of courts, the Kakṣyās, which has been in vogue from the times of Rāmāyaṇa, the Epic age and fully adhered even in such modern palaces as those of Mughals in the medieval architectural history of our land. This point would be more amplified in its proper place. Further again, the palace-planning is a composite-planning which consists not only of the residential quarters of the king and his retinue, but a vast paraphernalia of huge establishments where the Council- Chamber, the Sabhā, the stables for housing the elephants and other royal animals along with the pleasure-gardens dhārāgṛhas, etc., etc., are also given a proper attention. All this will be detailed ahead---vide Section B. These palaces of old were not only the residential houses of ruling sovereigns and kings but also the national museums and public places where manifold structures of imposing grandeur were built to add to the beauty of the Capital. This was not enough as there was a very high tradition of Palace pleasures in which the mechanical contrivances, the Yantras in their manifold varieties, used to be housed for not only the pleasures of the kings but also for amusement of the public. Accordingly this side-branch of Palace-accessories---the Yantras etc, will also be treated here and now---vide the Section C.

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This is about the broad indication of Palace-architecture---both in its main buildings and accessory components as well as the accessory pleasures. We have however to give some attention to the public buildings gorgeous and magnificent in character and useful from the stand-point of civic amenities like library, picture-gallary, the courts (rural and urban), the rest-houses, etc., etc., as provided by the state, which in ancient India was centred in the ruling chief. Hence a brief notice of these cognate buildings also forms the subject-matter of this part---the Section D.

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These buildings, therefore, all fall under the domain of Palace-architecture as their genesis and character rest on the fine architecture rather on popular architecture, the Śālās.

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Further, under the Public Buildings, according to the charcteristic of the age, the public wells and tanks, the water reservoirs also are worthy of notice. Hence some space would be allotted to these most vital and useful establishments of the town, fully adhering to our scheme of the Vāstulakṣaṇa in the matter of Buildings as Jana-niveśa, Rāja-niveśa and Nagara-niveśa, the last of which illustrates this category of buildings.

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*N.B.*---All these sections may be arranged in single chapter in this part.

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PALACE-ARCHITECTURE

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Rāja-Veśma: The opening sentence of the fifteenth chapter—‘Rājaniveśa’, says, “that the planning of the Rājaveśma was a component part of the planning of a town”. Any town plan in ancient or medieval India must bestow sufficient attention to the Rājaveśma—the residential quarters of the kings and their kinsmen together with all the establishments of a king those days. This is what the S. S. says at the very outset (cf. 15. 1-8). It says that after the town has been planned on the famous site-plan of sixtyfour squares; all the roads both highways, and the central ones together with the adjoining Mahārathyās, Uparathyās and their auxiliary ones, the streets, lanes and bye-lanes have also been planned out, the fortification in all its ramifications and component parts of the surrounding ditches, ramparts and walls and the Aṭṭālakas thereupon has also been completed; the raised platforms, the Catvaras are also architecturally built and finished, the temples and shrines—the places of worship are allotted to the different deities allocated both in the interior of the town and in its exterior; then a piece of land selected at the western side of the centre, in orientation of the North, on the pada presided over by Mitra, a square, even and auspicious (i. e. conforming to the minutest details of the Śāstra) and bestower of fame, grandeur and victory, the palace of the king should be built”.

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Every building activity has got two main functions to be attended to, namely the engineering of the building—surveying the site, testing the soil and selecting one to be planned out, and the operating upon it in accordance with the plan set out in the sketches. Naturally, therefore, an important building work like that of a palace of a king has to be attended to, properly. The S. S., therefore, has devoted two chapters to this important piece of architecture of the Rājaveśma. The master architect first has to attend to its planning—the laying out of the different parts of the palace on different sites. This it has done in Chapter 15.

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The site on which the palace should be erected is already pointed out. The S. S. makes a limited classification of Palaces only into three, namely, Jyeṣṭha, the superior type, Madhya, the intermediate type and Kaniṣṭha the inferior type, and they are to be located in the respective town types (cf. Ch. XV). In Mānasāra, palaces are divided into nine classes with regard to their size, according as they may belong to a king of any of the nine-classes—Cakravartin, Mahārāja, Mahendra etc. etc. Next, the site-plan, i. e. Paramaśāyika of 81 squares, to be employed in the planning of a palace and the classification of three types are indicated. The Samarāṅgaṇa bestows its attention upon its defence and good look—the fortifications of the palace and its beautification. Though situated in the interior of the town, the Rāja-niveśa must have a surrounding moat and a rampart to ward off the insecurity of the palace. This fortification also consisted of so many architectural designs as *Aṅgabhrama*, *Niryūha* and strong towers and turrets, the crowning parts of the parapets—the surrounding walls and they are so laid as to make the whole structure beautiful.

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After fortification, the question of the planning of the gates and doors is attended to. As many as three classes of doors are prescribed. It may be remarked here that the Indian technique of placing the doors is intimately related to the traditional site-planning. Hence sometimes a confusion is created as to whether a particular door is to be put in a particular direction or otherwise, because the Vāstudvāra and Bhavanadvāra are two different things. The text recommends the Vāstudvāra in the north-side of Rāja-mārga while the Bhavanadvāra of the palace towards the East. Naturally, therefore, the frontal gate—the main gate must be placed in the East. The main gate is technically called the Gopuradvāra and to be laid on the Pada presided over by Bhallāṭa. The magnificence of these Gopurams is our architectural heritage.

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Another variety of doors to be placed in a palace may be termed as the cardinal doors being placed on the respective four cardinal points (S. S. 15. 11 (2nd line) to 13) i. e. Mahendra on Mahīdhara; Puṣpadanta on Vaivasvata; Gṛhakṣata on Aryamā and so on. The text is emphatic for laying out Gopurams on all principal directions perhaps to add to the grandeur of the Palace. The third variety of doors is technically known as Pakṣadvāras, the side doors, necessitated on odd hours when the main gates are colosed.

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The fortified and well defended palace with its gates and Gopuras together with Pakṣadvāras and Bhramas, the enclosing cloisters has emerged in its full glory facing towards the East. Its varieties however, though enumerated to be as many as four, have not been explained. Perhaps these names were so common that the author did not deem it necessary to point out their relative distinctions. They are as follows:—

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1. Śrīvṛkṣa
2. Pṛthivījaya
3. Sarvatobhadra
4. Muktakoṇa.

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These palaces should have a good number of śālās—courts scattered all round to serve the purpose of the kingdom and house-hold establishments. The attached chart (appended in the end) will show at a glance the list of the following vast establishment of a princely palace in those glorious days located in the different Padas presided over by the different Pada-devatās.

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Names of establishments.

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1. Residence—the *Gṛha*.
2. Seat of Justice—*Dharmādhikaraṇa*
3. Store House—*Koṣṭhāgāra*
4. Pavilions of birds and animals.
5. Kitchen—*Mahānasa*
6. The pavilion of the public audience, i.e. *Āsthāna-maṇḍapa* or *Sabhājanāśraya*.
7. Dinning hall—*Bhojanasthāna*
8. Vādya-śālā (Hall of the Instrumental Music).
9. The Bards.
10. The Arsenal—*Carmāyudhas*
11. The fashioning of the golden and silver ornaments.
12. The secret store-house—the *Gupti*.
13. Dance & drama—*Prekṣā* & *Saṅgīta*
14. The sheds for the chariots & the elephants.
15. The Vāpī
16. The Interior chamber *Antaḥ-pura*—the Harem well fortified *Note*—Its Gopura, the main gate should face towards the North and the palaces of the queens should face towards the West.
17. Pleasure and swinging and play pavilions— *Krīḍā* - *dolāālayas*
18. Chambers of the Princesses—*Kumārī-bhavanas*
19. The alternative chambers of the queens *N.B.*—The secondary inner chamber however, is to be located on *Indra*.
20. The lying-in-chamber—*Ariṣṭāgṛha*
21. The Aśoka Orchard.
22. The Batha—*Snāna-gṛha*
23. The shower *Dhārāgṛha*.
24. The Creeper pavilions—*Latā-gṛhas*
25. Wooden hills—Dārugiri—the Vāpīs and the well-laid flower lines—*Puṣpa-vīthīs*, and the flower pavilions—*Puṣpa-veśma*, together with the machine room—*Yantra-karmānta* 26. Water sheds (both for drinking and other uses)—*Pānagṛha*
27. Another store house
28. The factory of armaments—*Āyudha-Mandira*
29. The third variety of the store-house.
30. The chamber for the wooden-mortar (*Ulūkhala*) and flour-mill (*Śilāyantra*).
31. Timber work—*Dārukarmānta*
32. The gymnasium and the theatre and the picture palace—*Vyāyāma-Nāṭya-Citra-gṛhas*
33. Medical stores
34. Stables for elephants
35. Cow-sheds and the milk reservoir—*Kṣīra-gṛha*
36. The priest
37. Coronation pavilion and the one for alms, study and *Śāntika* also.
38. The places where Cāmara and Chatra are kept together with the Council House.
39. The stable for the horses—*Mandurā*.
40. The living chambers of the princes—The *Rājaputra-veśma*
41. The Study chambers of the princes—*Vidyādhigama-śālā*
42. The queen mother
43. Pavilions for palanquine and the bed chamber and the drawing room—*Śibikā-Śayyā-Āsana-gṛha*
44. Pleasure ponds and lotus lakes.
45. Palaces of uncle and maternal uncle.
46. Palaces of the Sāmantas.
47. Devakula, the royal Chapel
48. The Astronomer's place and also that of an Astrologer.
49. The Residence of the Commander-in-Chief.
50. The Assembly Hall—the *Sabhā*.

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In this big list, it is difficult to draw a line of demarcation between domestic establishments and those related to administration. In those times, the palaces for all practical purposes served as seats of government.

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It may be remarked here that such a vast establishment of a palace is no where to be found in any extant Śilpa work. The author Bhoja, being a king, it was but natural that he should present a grand picture of palace-architecture. In the Mānasāra, the list of Palace-establishment does not go beyond 42 (H. A. I. A. p. 124) while here it is about 50.

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It may be remarked here that the Palace Architecture, like the Temple Architecture has got an unbroken tradition behind it, Dr. V. S. Agarwala, (vide his Harṣacarita-Eka-Sāmskṛtika Adhyayana, Appendix 1) maintains that the planning of the Royal palaces has had a code of stereotyped canons, meticulously adhered to, right from the age of the Epics (vide the palaces of King Daśaratha and Prince Rāma as described in Vālmīki's Rāmāyaṇa) down to the palaces of Moghal Emperors like Akabar and Shahjahan (see Fort at Delhi). It is in relation to Bāṇabhaṭṭa's descriptions of the royal palace of Emperor Harṣa that the learned Doctor has propounded a learned thesis with a ful-fledged background of the palace-architecture in ancient India kept in tact in early and later medieval periods of Indian History.

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A special notice of the Royal palace is its distribution in several courts. These courts ranged from three to seven. Harṣa's palace had three. Kādambarī's Tārāpīḍa had seven courts (kakṣyās) in his palace, while Daśaratha five and Rāma only three.

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Now the question is : how many courts can we adduce from the Samarāṅgaṇa's treatment of the Royal palace—Rāja-Niveśa (cf. the Ch. 15). The S.S., does not distribute the vast Royal establishment into courts as Mānasāra does into Antaḥ-śālā and Vahiś-śālā. It allocates the different places of the big royal paraphernalia—the residential palaces, pleasure-gardens and ponds etc., as well as the administrative set-ups to the different plots (and they were as many as eighty one, cf. the Parama-śāyika plan) presided over by the different deities. Now as there is no explicit mention of the courts in the treatment of Samarāṅgaṇa's palace architecture, the whole thing remains only a conjectural analysis. As per the diagramtic representation appended in the end as many as five principal courts—two in the exterior and two in the interior parts together with the central one reserved for the inauspicious and unhappy establishments (S S. 15. 47-8) on the Pada of Brahmā, are a certainty. Again, what are courts? The different śālā-spans may be taken to be courts and the S. S. does make a hint at this (cf. 15 18 i.e., ‘Śālā-parikramopetam’ which may be interpreted as with courts alround.

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After this plan of the palace in its minutest of requirements, we are better fitted to go to the next chapter on the subject in which the varieties of palaces have been dealt with It may be pointed out here that Palace Architecture and Temple Architecture, for all practical purposes, are the same except that in a temple so many pavilions and so much of fortifications are not needed; otherwise the broad outlines are identical. The S.S. itself compares a palace to the seat of gods—the temple in the following beautiful verse :

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इति कथितदिगादिभेदयोगैः सुरभवनानि भवन्ति यस्य राज्ञः ।
अचिरसमुदितोदितप्रतापः स्वभुजजितां स चिरं प्रशास्ति पृथ्वीम् ॥ S. S. Ch. 51.

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“This Rājaveśma, akin to the abode of the gods, if built in accordance with the injunction of the Śāstra by the king, he becomes competent to sway his suzerainty on the whole earth whose girdle is the seven oceans, after he has overcome his enemies by dint of his prowess”. We are familiar with Amarakośa’s diction—प्रासादो देवभूभुजाम्’ ‘this statement echoes the structural correspondence between temple and palace and reflects character common to both. The splendour and grandeur of each makes it a thing of beauty and of marvel. Upon places of highest eminence rises the Prāsāda (temple or palace) in monumental calm and dignity. The subtleties of its measurements, the relative proportions of its parts and graciousness of its ornaments are of most delicate description. It is the supreme expression of the noblest efforts and the best skill of artists. It exhibits the care by which the great builders obtain fine harmonies and please the minds of men. In the world of men, King is looked upon as the central figure and in ancient India, was supposed to represent in his person the various divine elements. By virtue of such a position, he commands dignitories and attendants and receives from his people, willing tributes. With the aid of accumulated wealth and the best skill available in the land, is constructed his palace. Round the hall of the King are constructed accessory structures to meet the demand of royalty”—Mallaya.

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The palaces as treated in the 30th Chapter of the text are examples of an ornamental style, probably the Lāṭa style, the most characteristic features of this style being exuberance of ornamentation and decorative motifs as well as the abundant application of pillars. On styles I shall dwell at length in Part V—the Temple Architecture. For the present, it suffices here to say that out of the fifteen types of palaces as described in the 30th Chapter entitled Rājagṛha, (tabulated ahead) the first ten varieties are residential houses, while the last five are pleasure palaces (the former are called *Nivāsa-bhavanāni* and the latter, the *Vilāsa-bhavanāni* (vide S.S. 30th 120-21).

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It may be noted that the Rājaveśma of the S.S. unlike that of Mānasāra does not admit of any classification in kind but degree only. The standard of measurement varies with its three varieties of the superior, intermediate and inferior quality. The first one of the one hundred eight hastas, the second of ninety hastas and the inferior one of seventy hastas, are deemed as fit—a lower measurement than this is prohibited.

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The appended chart will show at a glance the typical architectural elements of these fifteen royal palaces as treated in the second chapter on Royal houses in the text (cf. XXX).

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A little more on the ornamental architecture of these palaces is worth saying here. In the end of this chapter the author, while dwelling at length upon the architectural characteristics of the ornamental super-structure of these palaces, has referred to seven kinds of Lumās (or Lūpās—cf. Mānasāra and other Southern texts) Lumā is a decorative flower-like motif forming an essential composition of the Vitāna the canopy. Ramraz defines Lūpā as: "a sloping and projecting member of the entablature etc., representing a continued pent roof. It is made below the cupola and its ends are placed as it were suspended from the architraves and reaching the stalk of the lotus below". These Lumās, according to the S. S., are seven in number—Tumbinī, Lambinī, Helā, Śāntā, Manoramā, Kolā and Ādhmātā; in Aparājitapṛcchā however, their number is nine—add to the first five (which are common to both) of the Samarāṅgaṇa—Gāndhārī, Hasti-jihvā, Nāgāṅgā and Bhramarāvalī (the last being one of the names of 25 Vitānas in the S.S.).

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Lumās or Lūpās are indissolubly connected with Vitāna (Canopy) owing to their forming an essential component. It is to the Lumās that the Vitānas owe their charm and grace. The very name Vitāna is suggestive of the fact that the vault of the Vitāna assumes forms of flowers of various kinds. According to observation of P. A. Mankad (vide introduction to Aparājitapṛcchā—pp. CXXXV) Domes and vaults (the characteristics of the Moghul Architecture in the later medieval period) did exist in India in multifarious forms long before the advent of the Mohamedan rulers. "How far the Indian constructive and decorative characteristics were contributory to the development of the Saracenic domes etc., of the Moghul period and whether the Indian influence came to be exhorted in the formation of the substratum and super-structure of these forms will remain a moot question till whole literature on the Indian type of Vitāna is available".

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Now without entering into the further details of the architecture of these Palaces (reserved for part V), it is necessary to introduce the main elements of this class of Palace architecture. It is a composite architecture in which house-architecture and temple architecture together with Hall architecture (vide 'Sabhā', the Council Hall) have all played their part. The most predominant of a Śālā-house, as we shall presently see, is the abundant application of the corridors (Alindas) and porticos (Bhadrās) together with the Central halls—the śālās. This characteristic has been fully preserved here. The tabulation (appended) of these palaces with their main characteristics of Alindas and Bhadrās may be compared. We have indicated the unbroken tradition of the courts in a palace. These Alindas, numbering as many as four in practically all the types of the palaces treated by the S. S. presuppose an open courtyard (vide Commentary on Bṛhatsaṁhitā:—

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‘अलिन्दशब्देन शालाभित्तेर्बाह्ये या गमनिका जालकवृताङ्ग णसम्मुखा ...........’ ।

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By the word ‘Alinda’ is understood the lattice-covered path beyond the wall of a hall and facing (or in front of) the courtyard. This architectural planning of the houses like Sarvatobhadra, Nandyāvarta, Vardhamāna, Svastika and Rucaka, the śālā houses, as described in the ancient sources like Kāmikāgama, Agnpurāṇa (vide Enc. H. Arch. p. 47-8) corroborate this essential constituent of Alinda. The S. S. too follows this ancient tradition in its treatment of the Palace architecture (Ch 30). Again the chief characteristic of the Hall architecture—the abundant employment of Pillars is fully assimilated here (vide Tabulation in the appendix). The super-structure of storeys with manifold mouldings and so many other decorative elements, the chief characteristic of temple architecture, is fully displayed here in the sublime architecture of the palace. It is a controversial point whether temples owe their super-structure to the lofty palaces or vice-versa. Scholars like Bhattacharya (vide C. I. A.) maintain the former position. In my opinion, however, the case is otherwise. I have throughout maintained that it is the religious architecture that originated and developed first on the sacred soil of India. Hence it is beyond comprehension to admit that the Temple architecture instead of becoming the model, should be a copy. In very ancient times, the residential quarters of a king were for all practical purposes, the citadel. The court, the treasury, the soldiers’ barracks, the council house, and the ministers’ houses were grouped round the royal castle and formed a part and parcel of it. Later on, though many a new establishment was added to it, it did not undergo any substantial modification (vide S. S. Ch. 15). Hence my contention is : Later development of palace architecture resembling a lofty super-structure with storeys, pinnacles and other ornamental mouldings and decorative elements of a Prāsāda were copied from it.

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Stone architecture, originally a taboo for residential houses of men—the Secular architecture, also gradually was relaxed. The kings must have taken the first advantage from this relaxation and made their houses in imitation of the Mandira, the stone structure

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ACCESSORY STRUCTURES

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Special Houses, the Halls and the houses of animals, the Vāji-śālā and Gaja-śālā

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Now that the planning of palaces has been discussed in brief, let us take up the other two classes of houses, the special houses called the Sabhā and the houses for animals, stables for horses and elephants in this fresh chapter. Though these structures formed a part of the palace and could have been treated in one chapter, but I have not done so in order to keep up their individual characteristics as a class of architecture by itself. Being accessory to the Palace, they are being dealt with in continuation with the Palace in this auxiliary chapter.

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The Sabhā

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Sabhā as a building is an ancient institution. There are many references to it in our sacred lore (A.V., XIX, 55,6; Taitt. Sam. III. 4, 8, 6, Taitt. Brā , 1.1, 10, 3; Chānd. Upniṣad, VIII-14). Their special features in the Vedic times were their pillars and fire altars. It is a pillared hall architecture and this characteristic of the Sabhā has been well-preserved in the S.S. as we will just see.

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In the epics we find an elaborate description of many Sabhās and they give a clue to their use as an assembly hall or a council chamber. The Mahābhārata has a separate Parva called Sabhā-parva, wherein Sabhās like Indra-sabhā, Yama-sabhā, Varuṇa-sabhā, Kubera-sabhā, and Brahma-sabhā are described.

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In the Mānasāra (III, 7-8; XVIII, 200; XXXIV, 562-563) sabhā from an architectural point of view, has been described as a type of building, an edifice and a public hall which indicate its varied uses and Dr. Acharya, on the authority of Vedic India Vol. II, page 426-427 (vide An Ency. H. Arch. 515) writes : "There must have been suitable structural arrangement for the transaction of judicial, commercial and political business and for the reception of courtly, well-born wealthy persons and kings and for the performance of gambling, merriment, social intercourse, debates and contests.

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I have in my own way called these places as pulpits for religious sermons and forums for discussions. Sabhā in this context was the Darbar Hall in the palace. It has been an invariable feature of all the royal palaces both in the East and the West. It may be remarked that the modern spacious drawing rooms and reception halls as society rooms in private dwelling houses had their proto-types in the Sabhā buildings. As per the S. S. also these Sabhās formed a part of the Palace (vide S.S. 15.49), its use is described as the protection of the Royal palace.

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The text describes the following eight-fold Sabhās in its Chapter—27th, the Sabhā:—

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1. Nandā, 2. Bhadrā, 3. Jayā, 4. Pūrṇā, 5. Bhāvitā, 6. Dakṣā, 7. Pravarā and 8. Vidurā.

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As already pointed out, the most characteristic feature of the planning of a Sabhā building is the abundant use of Pillars. In the first 5 buildings of the Sabhā called Nandā, Bhadrā, Jayā, Pūrṇā and Bhāvitā, pillars, as many as thirtysix, should be constructed in each of them and make them look like pillared halls with corridors and galleries all round supported by separate pillars. Thus the number of pillars still goes higher up.

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The distinguishing features of the remaining three Sabhās are the absence of pillars in all, corridors in the sixth type called Dakṣā, doors in the seventh, called Pravarā and Pragrīvas and doors both in the eighth called Vidurā.

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The Aśva-Śālā.

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The S.S. gives an elaborate description of the royal stable (Aśva-śālā Ch. 33) and with its minutest of equipment most suited to horses the hobby of the princes of those times and the only most convenient royal conveyance of the period.

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In this chapter we have to dwell upon the following four topics, namely:

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1. Planning of the stable proper, with its component parts.
2. The equipment of a stable.
3. The housing of horses.
4. The accessory chambers to the stable.

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1. Planning of the Stable Proper.

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It should be laid out on the site of *Gāndharva* or *Puṣpa-danta* in the compound of one's house. It admits of three classes, the largest type being in the measurement of one hundred Aratnis (an Aratni is equal to one hasta) i.e. 150 ft.; the intermediate one the eighty aratnis i.e. 120 ft. and the smallest type only sixty aratnis i.e. 90 ft. Again it should be so placed that the horses housed in it keep to the left of the owner, while he is passing out of it. The stable forming a component part of a palace, should be laid to the south of the Inner Chamber (Antaḥpura) so that while entering into it, their neighing should be heard on the right and this is deemed as auspicious. The main gate of the edifice should be laid either in the east or in the north and it should be decorated with arches. It should have four compartments—(śālās) each having a ‘prāggriva’. Its height should be ten aratnis i.e. 15 ft. and its breadth eight aratnis i.e. 12 ft. and in the wall the Nāga-dantas are to be constructed.

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1. *The Yavasasthāna.*—It may be called granary—the place where grass was stored.

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2. *The Khādanakoṣṭhaka.*—The manger where horses were fed with grass.

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3. *The Kīlakas*—the pegs, khūṇṭās with which the horses were fastened with ropes.

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These were all finished architectural establishments. This Yavasasthāna is a wooden structure. It should be placed in the Brāhma corner. The wood employed in it should be of one of these trees—Dhātakī, Arjuna, Punnāga, Kakubha and it should be examined and approved by the attending physician. It should have a height of at least three Kiṣkus (one Kiṣku is equal to 42 aṅgulas). The length and the breadth of the Khādana-koṣṭha should be equal to 3 hastas. For the fastening of all the five-fold limbs (technically called the Pañcāṅgī) several sets of these pegs should be placed on intervening spaces and one principal wedge should be secretly laid out.

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2. The equipment of a stable.

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The list of the equipment of a stable is simply formidable. It consists in the first instance of the place for fire keeping (South-West corner), the water pot (North-East), the place for mortar, Ulūkhala (North-West) ; secondly it consisted of a number of implements like Niśśreṇī (stair-cases), Kuśa (sacred grass), wells covered with planks, Kuddāla, Uddāla (spades etc ), Guḍakas (balls), Śukta-yogas and Khuras (hoofs), hair-cutters, horns, hatchets, Nādyās and the lamps—all these to be placed in the South-West. Again there should be a good number of pots for storing water etc, to be used in the event of outbreak of fire etc. Thirdly, the Hasta-vāsī, Śilā (the stone) lamp, Darvī, Phāla and shoes, manifold varieties of Piṭakas and Vastis should also form a part of the equipment, of a stable.

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3. The Shed.

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There is an interesting account of how the horses are to be housed in a stable. The places where the horses were fastened, were called Sthānas (modern thāna—even today we call it thāna). Only the S.S. has credit to mention it (Ch 33. 21-24). A series of Sthānas planned in a row formed the Aśva-sālā, which was always long (cf. Raghuvaṁśa V—"Dīrgheṣvamī niyamitāḥ paṭa-maṇḍapeṣu").

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These were well decorated. Their dimensions (indicated in Ch. 33.22) are one Kiṣku in Āyāma and three Kiṣkus in Vistāra. These Sthānas are always to be laid facing either to the East or to the North. Again they are so constructed that their ūrdhva-bhāgas—the frontal parts should have the higher levels than those of hinder ones. Further again they should be quadrangular in shape.

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Now as regards the fastening of the horses, the first direction is that a space of four hastas in all the corners of śālā, the chamber, should be left vacant before the fastening of the horses is to be undertaken. The second direction insists that comfortable position and enough space should be allotted to each horse, so that they may not touch one another and feel congested. This is only a general direction. Orientation of the directions has always been a matter of supreme importance, not only to the building-planning of India, but to any planning in ancient India. Here in the stable, placing of the horses must have due regard to this institution of orientation. Here it may be noted that the orientation of the chamber and the orientation of the horses stationed in it are two different things. For example, the orientation of the chamber to the South while acclaimed good, is bad for the horses. The horses can be stationed facing the eastern direction. This being the most auspicious in all matters—in giving bath, dressing and decorating, worshipping and other auspicious performances of the horses. These prescriptions are not dogmatic. They relate to the hygiene of the place, the morning rays of the rising sun would be a perennial source of health and longivity to the horses. Similarly the southerly orientation is also acclaimed as auspicious. The chamber facing the South and the stable being placed on the pada presided over by Fire God—the soul of the Horses (Ātmā vahniśca vājinām), were both deemed as auspicious. The horses so placed never get old and feed well (Ajaro bahu-bhoktā ca). The Northerly orientation is also not bad, because in this position too, the rays of the sun make a circulation as it were and so are beneficial from the point of longivity and health. The southern direction and western direction of the stables are deemed inauspicious. Similarly the South-East, South-West, North-West and North-East are also bad.

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4. Medical Home.

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The text is emphatic that even for a moment sick horses should never remain with the healthy ones for the simple reason that they may develop infection (vide verse 74). Therefore, as many as four accessory chambers are needed and are termed as:—

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1. Bheṣajāgāra—the Dispensary.
2. Ariṣṭamandira—the lying-in-chamber.
3. The Vyādhita-bhavana—the hospital or sick wards.
4. Sarva-sambhāra-veśma—medical stores, where-in should be stored all kinds of medicines—the salts, the oils, vartis, etc. etc.

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All these structures (veśma-catuṣṭaya, 33, 78) are to be laid adjoining the stable proper and constructed beautifully with wall made strong with plaster (सुधावन्वदृढकुड्य) and having high gate-ways and porches (prāggrīvakas). They need not have partitioned rooms in them (viśālānī) but be simple rooms (sugamānī)

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Gaja-śālā.

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Like Aśva-śālā the Gaja-śālā, (Ch. 32) is not so elaborately treated. The S. S. classifies stables for elephants into the following seven varieties, the first six being auspicious and last inauspicious:

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| 1. | Subhadrā | 5. | Caturaśrā |
| 2. | Nandinī | 6. | Varṣaṇī & |
| 3. | Su-bhogadā | 7. | Pramārikā (the killer). |
| 4. | Bhadrikā | | |

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The text enjoins that these stables for elephants should be planned very spacious and their relative measurements should be akin to those of the palaces, the largest type, the intermediate one and the smallest type. Their special architectural characteristics being the employment of the śālās, karṇa-prāsādas and the prāggrīvas--the distinguishing feature of each of them is the different application of these motifs.

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PALACE PLEASURES

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The mechanical contrivances, the Yantras.

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**Introduction.** Tantra and Yantra are familiar words in Sanskrit. In my opinion Tantra is science and Yantra is an art. The former a knowledge—a Śāstra, the latter a mechanical achievement, both are of hoary antiquity. While so many Tantras are available, the Yantras, as charts which stored up within their confines spiritual power, are also there in esoteric worship, but the Yantras—the mechanical contrivances are extinct altogether. In the traditional list of sixtyfour arts (vide commentary on Kāmasūtra by Yaśodhara) there is mentioned also a Kalā, called Yantra-mātrikā on which the commentary says “Sajīvānām nirjīvānām yantraṇam, Yānodaka-saṅgrāmārtham śāstram, Viśvakarma-proktam”. Dr. Acharya (H. A. I. and A. page 15) says (cf. 53. Yantra-mātrikā): “The art of making monograms, logographs and diagrams. Yaśodhara attributes this to Viśvakarmā and calls Ghaṭanā-śāstra (science of accidents)”.

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With due respect to the learned Doctor, I may submit my interpretation: The Yantras admit the three principal classes—firstly, the Yāna-yantras, conveyances like Vimānas and chariots, secondly, the Udaka-yantra, water machines, pipes and showers technically called Vāri-yantra and Dhārā-yantra and thirdly, the machines of warfare (Saṅgrāmārtha). This interpretation fully fits with the broad categories of Yantras, the S.S. has described, as we shall presently see.

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Yantra-vidyā was applied art of Dhanur-vidyā. Some of the weapons could not have been used without some mechanism attached to them. We know four classes of Śastras—Mukta, Amukta, Muktāmukta and Yantra-mukta. In the S. S. weapons such as Cāpas etc. Śataghnīs etc. Uṣṭra-grīvas etc. are said to be operated upon by a Yantra only (S.S. 31-108). The species of arrows like Nalikā and Bṛhannalikā were also used by some mechanism akin to that of the modern guns. The science of Archery is full of such details.

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In the Mahābhārata there are clear and vivid descriptions of a good number of Yantras, e.g., Śastras (defending weapons), āstras (throwing weapons), bows and arrows equally terrible as the modern weapons e.g.:—

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The Astras like:—

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1. Āgneyāstra— (Fire-vomitter)
2. Indrāstra— (Anti-Āgneya—rain-producer).
3. Varuṇāstra— (Producing terrible & violent storms),

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and Śastras like Bhuṣuṇḍi, Śataghnī and Sahasraghnī, akin to the modern machine-guns, sten-guns and tanks, together with Yantras like Candramaṇi by the help of which water could be produced on the deserts—can not be under-estimated.

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All this speaks of a great advancement in the science of warfare as well as the general advanced condition of the scientific knowledge in the times of Mahābhārata.

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The mechanical achievements of the Mahābhārata, however, did shadow the Indians for a long time. There are innumerable references in the literature which speak of an unbroken chain of the mechanical skill in this country. All these references to the different and manifold varieties of Yantras have been ably worked out and presented in his ‘Yantras or Mechanical Contrivances in Ancient India’ by Dr. V. Raghavan.

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When the recorded literature speaks of the glorious heritage of these secular achievements, it must have undoubtedly formed the subject matter of discourse and discussion as well as enunciation of the norms and guiding principles for the artisans. Hence the Śāstra and its Practice both must have been flourishing in those bygone days.

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A good many works and the references thereof have been found and on their basis some hypothesis of glorious scientific heritage can be imagined. Moreover, some of the monuments, e.g., Iron Pillar of Aśoka near Kutub-Minar is a mystery even today. How without an aid, mechanical operation and device thereof, such a huge and weighty iron pillar could be made stand up and what was that mechanism in that simple age that even after more than two thousand years this has not contracted with rust.

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Samarāṅgaṇa’s chapter on Yantra is remarkable, not only for its treatment, but also for the help it gives, in formulating some opinion about this branch of knowledge. It hints at the unbroken tradition of the Yantra-ghaṭanā—a traditional skill (cf. 31.87) and remarks that the traditional training of this art is a matter not of record, but of oral transmission from generation to generation through the unbroken chain of the masters and the disciples. Moreover, like the spiritual Yantras, these Yantras should also be kept secret and unfolded only to the real Jijñāsu, otherwise they do not bear fruition (31.79-80).

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Yantra and Its Elements (Yantra-Bījas). What is a Yantra? The S S. opens with the definition of Yantra, that it is so called, because it controls and directs, according to a plan, the motions of things that act upon each other according to its own nature. That is a Yantra or machine is one which controls the Bhūtas and makes them serve a specific purpose. The Mahābhūtas, like the Earth, the Water, the Fire, the Wind and the Ether, though independent in their operations and movements, when brought to act in a particular way, that way may be called a Yantra (vs. 3. 4).

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Elements, the essential factors of a Yantra according to the S. S. are only four:—

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तस्य बीजं चतुर्धा स्यात् क्षितिरापोज्नलॊऽनिलः।
आश्रयरवेन चैतेषां वियदप्युपयुज्यते ॥ ३१.५

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The Earth, the Water, the Fire and the Wind, these are the Bījas of a Yantra, but all these are dependent for their movement and operation only on the Ether—this Ether or the sky, therefore, by virtue of being the substratum i e. the basis and medium of action becomes an element itself. Hence there are five Bījas of a Yantra. Among them the Earth is the main constituent. It is the ground of operation and, therefore, the earthly constituent in a Yantra naturally becomes more pronounced and more in quantity also and having earth as the basis, all the other Bījas namely the water, the fire and the wind are operated upon.

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