Vastu-shastra (Vol. I: Hindu Science of Architecture; Vol. II: Hindu Canons of Iconography and Painting) v2.c75.s2: Section I—Jain Images

Vāstu-śāstra (Vol. I: Hindu Science of Architecture; Vol. II: Hindu Canons of Iconography and Painting) v2.c75.s2

Language: English

Section I—Jain Images

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**Foundation of Jain Iconography:** In the Pratimā-Lakṣaṇa, Jain images and Buddhist ones have been both assigned only one paṭala (chapter). Accordingly here also they would be treated in one chapter. Before we take the Jain iconography, let us just try to know its foundation, the institution of worship which Jains evolved. This institution to which the Jainas were wedded presupposes in its turn the general tenets of Jainism—its philosophy and its ethics. And so while taking all these into our consideration, naturally, the most logical question which crops up is to say a few words on the rise of Jainism itself—its antiquity and evolution.

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It may be asserted at the very outset that Jainism is not any new religion in India. Originally it was only an off-shoot from Hinduism. It may have been a reaction to some of the most intolerant institutions like Yajña and its implied animal sacrifice and unwieldy paraphernalia difficult to be adhered to by ordinary run of men. Religion in India has always been a way of hearty doing rather than a belief of the mind. Those who stood for a new gospel must have been the pioneers of simple, sacred and pious life which characteristic has never left Jainism. Now when this pure and serene original spring began to flow into many a channel and required newer and newer land, naturally, the mud of dogmatism changed its colour. It acquired a new dogma, its own philosophy (metaphysics) and ethics. Vedism (the fountain head of Yajña) was the first target. Anyone questioning the authority of the Vedas was regarded and discarded as heritic. The Jainas and the Baudhas both, who questioned the Paramount Authority of Hinduism were labelled as heterodox. The Jainas accepted the challenge—promulgated their own religious tenets, formulated a philosophy of their own and worked out an ethical code for their daily routine—collective as well as individual life. Thus heresy was supreme.

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As it is an introduction to Jain iconography, we are not going to dwell at length at Jain religion. It is enough to point out here that as Buddhists evolved their own Scriptures in place of Vedic scripture so did the Jains. These are called *Aṅgas* and *Sūtras*. The most important characteristic features which gave the Jainism a stamp of their own, were the extremity of tenderness shown towards an animal life—Ahim̄sā and the Saint-worship (*i. e.* the worship of the Tīrthaṅkaras who were regarded superior even to gods). The latter element of Saint-worship simply humanised Jainism.

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Avoiding other details in regard to the religious views of the Jains their conception of Mokṣa, unlike the negative concept of Nirvāṇa of the Buddhists (cf. the doctrine of ‘Śūnya’—vide Monism of Śaṅkara), rests on the positive significance implying absolute purity and freedom from the snares of Karma.

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In metaphysics, Jainism recognises a pluralistic realism which is very much influenced from and is akin to the Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika theory of Hindu Philosophy. The Doctrine of Syād-vāda (may be or may not be) or the seven methods of predication (sapta-bhaṅgi-nyāya) gives Jain philosophy a scientific and a rational approach by which knowledge is characterised as a synthetic approach.

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It is in the realm of their ethics that foundation of temples and worship of the Saints come and that is what is directly related to our subject. The ethical organisation of the Jainas like that of the Buddhists, prescribes a code of religious conduct both for the Monks and the Laity—vide the five-fold vow (practically the same as we have in our Yoga-Darśana—ahim̄sā, asteya etc.). The Monks are Yatis, the Laity, the Śrāvakas. The former can do away with worship, the latter are enjoined as a rule, to visit a temple and pay their homage to the Tīrthaṅkaras by worshipping them.

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Antiquity of Image-worship among the Jains—the question is no more controversial, antiquity of Jainism may be still a problem but its image-worship is not a problem. Worship as a historical examination is preposterous; it should always be examined from the broad cultural standpoint. Worship in some form or other was the life-companion of man; it may be aniconic or iconic. In the rise of Jainism, the rise of worship must have been first aniconic—vide the early archeological evidence of stupas (*i: e.* 7th. Century B.C. stupas built in honour of Supāraśvanātha) and the Ayāgapaṭas etc. etc. There are so many evidences for the iconic traditions among the Jains—vide inscriptions (Hathigumpha) proving the antiquity of the image-worship and a good many illustrations of the images themselves—cf. Khandagiri and Udaigiri caves, fully illustrating this evidence and they are all a testimony to do away with this question. Kauṭilya mentions Jain deities Jayanta, Vaijayanta, Aparājita etc. in his monumental work. Antagada Daso and other Jain scriptural texts which are not later than Mahāvīra’s time, also corroborate the antiquity of image-worship and dedication of shrines and temples. Let us, therefore, say a few words on the mode of Jain image-worship by which it is characterized to see if there are certain innovations or modifications from that of Hindu image-worship.

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**The Arcā of the Jains :—**the mode of worship among the Jains is neither very elaborate nor very complicated. It is very simple—Pradakṣiṇā, Praṇāma and Puṣpa—three ‘P’s will do. The more elaborate will consist of jala-pūjā, candana-pūjā, akṣata-pūjā and naivedya-pūjā to be followed by Ārti—the pañcopācras will do (cf. the 16 upacāras of the Hindus—vide Pr. Vijñ. chap. IX). Three other important features of Jain ritual and worship are : ‘Sāmayika’ reading (the reading of spiritual books), keeping fasts (which characterises their rigour of asceticism) and pilgrimage. ‘Besides the image-worship of the Tīrthankaras and some subordinate deities, the worship of the Siddhacakra (which is invariably kept in a Jain temple) has found a firm hold on the Jain devotee’. Later on Jain temple-worship also got complicated in conformity to their religious order. Jain temples became the centre of their religious activities. They were their churches—worship, recitation and ceremonies (like Samavasaraṇa—special decorations) all added to this development bringing them on a par to a Hindu temple.

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A few words need be said here on the Digambaras and the Śvetāmbaras (between which Jains had divided themselves on differences of certain doctorinal schisms) in relations to their different modes of worship. In Pūja, the Śvetāmbaras use flowers, sweet, etc. The Digambaras substitute them for dry rice, spices etc. While the former decorate the images of the Tīrthankaras with earrings, necklaces, armlets and tiars of gold and jewels etc.; the Digambaras leave their images naked and unadorned. Thirdly, the Digambaras bathe the images with abundance of water but the Śvetāmbaras use very little of it. Fourthly the Digambaras may bathe and worship their images during night, the Śvetambaras do not even light lamps in their temples, much less do they bathe or worship the images. The fifth difference relates to the use of pañcāmṛita in washing the images, the Digambaras do it, and the Śvetambaras would not. This is what the orthodox Jainism stands for. In neo-Jainism, two new (comparatively modern) sects known as Lunkās (452 A. D.) and Sthānaka-vāsīs or Dhundiās (1653 A. D.) arose who stand for absolute opposition to image-worship The Arcyas of the Jains — Classes of Jain gods and goddesses :—On the authority of the Jain texts the classifications of Jain deities may be purviewed:—

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(A) Earlier classifications—vide earlier Jain literature:—

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I. Jyotiṣi 9 planets

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II. Vimānavāsi
(a) born in Kalpas

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| (1) | Sudharma | (7) | Śukra or Mahāśukra |
| (2) | Īśāna | (8) | Sahasāra |
| (3) | Sanatkumāra | (9) | Ānata |
| (4) | Mahendra | (10) | Prāṇata |
| (5) | Brahmā | (11) | Ārana and |
| (6) | Lāntaka | (12) | Acyuta. |

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(b) born above the kalpas—anuttara-vimāna each with an Indra to rule over :—
(1) Vijaya
(2) Vijayanta
(3) Jayanta
(4) Aparājita &
(5) Sarvārtha-siddha

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| **III.** | **Bhavanavāsi** | **V.** | **Navavidhāna** |
| (1) | The Asura — | (1) | Naisarpa |
| (2) | Nāga — | (2) | Pāṇḍuka |
| (3) | Vidyuta — | (3) | Piṅgala |
| (4) | Suparṇa — | (4) | Sarvaratna |
| (5) | Agni — | (5) | Mahāpadma |
| (6) | Dvīpa — | (6) | Kāla |
| (7) | Udadhi — | (7) | Mahākāla |
| (8) | Dkvāta — | (8) | Mānava & |
| (9) | Ghanika— & | (9) | Śaṅkha |
| (10) | The Kumāras | **VI.** | **Vīradevas** |
| **IV.** | **Vyantara** | (1) | Mānabhadra |
| (1) | Piśācas | (2) | Pūrṇabhadra |
| (2) | Bhūtas | (3) | Kapila & |
| (3) | Rākṣasas | (4) | Piṅgala |
| (4) | Yakṣas | | |
| (5) | Kinnaras | | |
| (6) | Kimpuruṣas | | |
| (7) | Mahoragas & | | |
| (8) | Gandharvas | | |

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(B) The three-fold classification of *Ācāra-Dinakara*, consists of (i) firstly the *Prāsāda-devatās*, such as those installed on pedestals, in fields, in a cave or on a platform (catvara) or in a temple or they belong to the liṅga (symbolic) or Svayambhu type etc; (ii) secondly *Kuladevīs* or Tāntric goddesses such as Caṇḍī, Kaṇṭheśvarī, Vyagrarāji etc., and (iii) thirdly the Sampradā -devatās such as Ambā, Tripurā, Tārā etc.

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*N. B. (i)* : “.. ..it is clear that a great many Tāntric goddesses have found a room in the Jain pantheon. We came across the names of the goddesses of clearly Tāntric nature such as Kaṅkālī, Kālī, Mahākālī, Cāmuṇḍā, Jvālāmukhī, Kāmākhyā, Kāpālinī, Bhadrakālī, Durgā, Lalitā, Gaurī, Sumaṅgalā, Rohiṇī, Sulakatā, Tripurā, Kurukullā, Chandravatī, Yamaghaṇṭā Krāntimukhā etc.” J. I. p. 23. Further as we shall see in the Jain literature we find the incoroporation of the famous Śākta goddesses, the 64 Yoginīs in Jain pantheon and therefore, ‘this predominent Tāntric element in iconography seems to be represented by the Śvetāmbara sect, who like the Mahāyāna Buddhists, developed by assimilation and invention, a Tāntrika system of their own.’

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*N. B. (ii)* Besides the above-enumerated deities “there are divinities recognised and worshipped by the Jainas, who would not come under any of the above-mentioned categories and they are: (1) the 16 *Śruta-devīs* or *Vidyā-devīs*; (2) the 8 *Aṣṭamātṛkās*; (3) the *Mothers* of the *Tīrthankaras*: (4) *Kṣetrapāla*; (5) *Bhairavas*; (6) *Śri* or *Lakṣmī Devī* and (7) *Śānti-devī*. Thus the cent per cent Brahmanic influence on their pantheon and iconograpy is beyond doubt.

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With this introduction to the *Arcā* and the *Arcya*, let us now turn to the Jain images, their origin and characteristics, before we take uy the main images of Tīrthankaras and their accessories.

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**Origin of Jain Images**—As for the secular enjoyment and the cherishment of the memory of our dear and beloved ones, the pictorial images—the paintings have served an age-long tradition, similarly the growing idea of an image of a god or prophet a religious teacher or saint is to remind a believer of his life and deeds and to inspire him for the virtuous acts. This applies to all image-or relic-worship Hence the adherants and the followers install image in the sacred places associated with their lives and deeds. These places thus become the places of pilgrimage and sacred sites of hallowed memory, dedicated adoration and pious liberality and severe asceticism. This was also true to the origin of Jain images. When their Jinas departed, their statues were set up in a temple for daily and congregational worship. In the worship of the Jinas, a notable feature is the recitation of Kalyāṇakas or the auspicious moments in the life of the great ones from the body of the Jain Kalpasūtra. The great antiquity of this custom itself proves the relatively great antiquity of Jain images. In Jain iconography, besides these Tīrthankaras, as we have seen that many Brahmanical divinities were silently assimilated into the Jain pantheon. It was perhaps due to the ideas of auspiciousness, prosperity, wealth, kingly splendour or so on, very much associated with Brahmanical deities like Gaṇeśa Śrī, Kubera and Indra that they too found a direct outlet in the Jain Sculptor's art. All these images are fully represented in the Jain sculptural heritage as scattered throughout India specially at those places which are intimately connected with Jainism.

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Places of Jain pilgrimage : Rise of Jain images are synchronous with the rise of the centres of Jain pilgrimage, the sites associated with the lives of the great Jain Prophets. In fact, the Tīrthankaras made their Tīrthas—vide the tradition contained in the following stanza:

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जन्मनिष्क्रमणस्थानज्ञाननिर्वाणभूमिषु । अन्येषु पुण्यदेशेषु नदीषु नगरेषु च ॥
ग्रामादिसन्निवेशेषु समुद्रपुलिनेषु च । अन्येषु वा मनोज्ञेषु कारयेज्जिनमन्दिरम् ॥

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‘The phenomenal incidents in Jain literature are known as (a) Garbha or Conception, (b) Janma or Birth, 'c) Jñāna or Enlightenment, (d) Nirvāṇa or Death—or collectively Five Kalyāṇas. Besides these, free choice was given to build Jain temples on sacred places, on the sea-side or at any fine place or locality’. Brindavan Bhattacharya accordingly says (J. I. p. 29) that ‘as a consequence, we actually find Jaina temples under a Jain community scattered over all parts of India. Vimala sheh Tejapala and Vastupala on Mt. Abu in Rajputana and temples on the Mt. called Parasnath in S. Bihar are noteworthy in Jain architecture. The caves in the rock, on which the fort of Gwalior is built, contain many interesting Jain sculptures. Other sites of temples and sacred places of the Jainas are : Mathura, Śatruñjaya Hill in the Palitana State, Girnar in the Junāgarh State in Kathiawar, the Indra and Jagannath Sabha caves, Ellora, Khajuraho in C. I., Deogarh, Gadag, Lakkundi in Dharwar, Sravaṇa Belgola. At Sravaṇa Belgola, there is a gigantic statue of Gomateśvara. Other Jain clossii are found Karkala and Venur in South Kanara. Nearly all the Tīrthankaras obtained consecration and perfect knowledge at their native places though Ṛṣabha is said to have been a Kevalin *i.e.* one possessed of the highest knowledge, at Parimtāla, Neminātha, at Girnar, and Mahāvīra (the last) on Ṛjupālikā river. Twenty of them attained final release on Sammetaśikhara or Mt. Pārśvānatha but Neminātha enjoyed this bliss at Girnar, Vāsupujya at Campāpur in E. Bihar, Mahāvīra at Pāvāpurī and Ṛṣabha himself at Aṣṭāpada, which is identified with the famous Satruñjaya in Guzrat'. Eightyfour images of Jains are known to have been installed at different places of Jainism.

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**Tīrthankaras.**—or Jinas according to the Śilpa-Ratnākara—*vide* Pr. Laks. p. 270 are only the manifest aspects of the Supreme Brahma—Arūpa assuming Rūpa. They are Viśvarūpa, Jagat-prabhu, Kevala, Jñānamūrti, Vītarāga and in their incarnatory forms they take only two arms, one face and are seated on baddha-padmāsana attitude, meditating upon Prabrahma. These are also the characteristics of the great Hindu gods, the Yogīśvara Śiva or Yogāsana Viṣṇu or Padmāsana Brahmā. The question, therefore, would arise what are the distinctive features of a Jina or Tīrthankara? In the Jain literature a Tīrthankara means a prophet. ‘A Tīrthankara is he by whom was shown the broad fording-place of virtue, the best of all, reaching which men overcome sorrow’—Sāmantabhadra—*vide* Bṛahatsvayambhūstotra. Tīrtha thus would stand here for Dharma, and who expounds it is Tīrthankara. This is the view of the elders-the Digambaras. According to Śvetāmbara view ‘Tīrtha’ means a ‘Saṅṅha’ and one who founds it like a Buddha or a Christ is Tīrthankara. This order as we have already seen is consisted principally of two principal divisions of Sādhus or Monks and Śrāvakas or the laity, but if we include the women folk, it comes to four in number.

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Tīrthankara is also called a Jina (from which word the name of the religion is Jaina) meaning conqueror of the enemies such as lust, anger *etc.* And according to the Jain tenets these ‘Jinas’ are four-fold: (i) *Nāma Jinas*, (ii) *Sthāpana Jinas*; (iii) *Dravya Jinas* *i.e.* Śreṇikas and (iv) *Bhāva Jinas* (who have attained samavasaraṇa). Thus the Tīrthankaras or the Jinas are really a very sublime and noble iconological evolution not only in art but also in the religious history of India. The number 24 associated with these prophets of Jainism is simply fascinating. It brings home to us the imagination of those reformers who wanted to found rather supplant a new religion on some of the basic and universal teachings of Hinduism—rigorous asceticism of the Āraṇyakas, the Upaniṣadic Monism and the Epic and Paurāṇic Bhāgavatism in imitation to Vaiṣṇavism. If there are Ten Incarnations or Avatāras of Viṣṇu, let there be 24 incarnations or Tīrthankaras of Jina, who are all Jinas. Hence from the historical documents, it is difficult to support as Jain scholars maintain, the authenticity of all these 24 Jinas as enumerated ahead and consequently a great antiquity exceeding all anterior limits of the Vedic age. Thus, ‘whether real or fictitious, one fact is certain that these Tīrthankaras represent truely Jain elements and their origin is not due to any extranuous influences. In this connection, it is to be noted that while Buddhism formally admitting a number of Buddhas makes singularly prominent the Buddha or Gautama Buddha, the Jains on the contrary render many of their Tīrthanakaras appear in the forefront. A modern temple of the Jainas would show a gallery of images of many of their Tīrthankaras to whom equal respect is offered in their daily worship’—J. I. p. 37.

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**Characteristics of Jain Images**—In the Jain pantheon, the Tīrthankaras have been given the highest position. They are the Devādidevas (cf. Hemachandra’s Abhidhāna-Cintāmaṇi) in comparision to other gods and goddesses (borrowed from Hinduism) who are only Devas or ordinary gods. Accordingly B. C. Bhattacharya rightly remarks: ‘In Iconography also, this idea of the relative superiority of the Jinas has manifested itself. In the earliest sculptures of Jainism, the Tīrthakaras prominently occupy about the whole relief of the stone.’

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Jain iconography has a distinct bearing on its temple-iconography. ‘The images in a Jain temple are arranged in order of precedence. There is one *Mūlanāyaka*, he may be either Ṛṣabhanātha, Supārśvanātha, Pārśvanātha or Mahāvīra surrounded by other Jinas, who hold a less dignified position according as the temple-cult is associated with him. This predominance of a particular Jina is due to the situation of the temple in a place sanctified by him. For instance in the temple at Sarnath believed by the Jainas to be the birth-place of Śreyāmsanātha, we find his image in the position of a Mūlanāyaka.

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A Jina-image is also accompanied by so many other deities and accessories. Among these deities figure the devatās like Lakṣmi, Gaṇeśa and Indra add among the accessories would come the Yakṣas, the Yakṣiṇīs and the Gandharvas. Other characteristics of a Jain-sculpture are what are called Lā anas—vide Pr. Laks. p. 270 and they are :

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The presence of the following eight *Prātihāryas*:

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1. Divyataru or Aśoka or the particular tree under which the Enlightenment was attained—cf. Buddhist analogy;

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*N.B.* ‘The heavenly dundubhis consist of five musical instruments. These are the Pañcamahāśabda viz.

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(1) Śrṅga, the horn; (2) Tammata; the drum;
(3) Śaṅkha. the conch-shell; (4) Bherī, the trumpet and (5) Jayaghāta, the cymbol’—J. I. vide Appendix ‘A’.

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Brindavana further remarks that each Tīrthaṅkara is recognisable by a cognizance or *cinha* usually placed below his images. There are also certain symbolic ornaments which mark out a Jain representation distinctly from a Buddhist counterpart. These are svastika, mirror, urn, cane-seat shaped like an hourglass, two small fish, flower-garland and book. These symbols are our safeguards from misinterpretation of a Jain image.

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Another noticeable feature of distinguishing one Jina image from others is their representation of their particular way of sitting or standing attitude. Among them ‘Ṛṣabha, Nemi and Mahāvīra agree in the fact that they attain release when seated on the lotus-throne, while other Tīrthaṅkaras pass] away in the Kāyotsarga-posture (that of a man standing with his arms hanging stiff with the body)—J. I. p. 29.

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Jina-iconography: Among the three texts quoted in the Pr. Laks. p. 271—vide (ii) according to the Br. Samhitā, the chief characteristics or essential marks of a Jina figure are long hanging arms (cf. Mahāpuruṣalakṣaṇa); the Śrīvatsa symbol, the mild form—praśāntamūrti, the youthful and beautiful body and the nudity. This is also corroborated by Vasunandi's Pratiṣṭhāsāra-saṃgraha, a Jain document—vide Pr. Laks. ibid (iii). The Mānasāra and the Aparājitapracchā among the Śilpa-texts are accredited to have described the Jain images also. And accordingly the former text after dwelling at length upon the varieties of alternative iconometric measurements of the Jina-iconography sums up in a couplet:

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निराभरणसर्वाङ्गं निर्वस्त्राङ्गं मनोहरम्।
सर्ववत्तः स्थले हेमवर्णं श्रीवत्सताञ्छनम् ॥

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which is exactly what the B. S. or the P. S. S. describe. Regarding their bodily features, the text further says :

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द्विभुजं च द्विनेत्रं च मुण्डतारं च शीर्षकम्।
स्फटिकश्वेतरक्तं च पीतश्यामनिभं तथा॥

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Again according to this text the Śrīvatsa symbol should be marked in gold and the image is to be attended by Nārada and other sages, besides the Yakṣas, Vidyādharas, Siddhas, Nāgendras and Lokapālas.

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Now avoiding too many other details, let us tabulate all the 24 Tīrthaṅkaras with their lāñchanas, and Śāsanadevas and Śāsanadevīs together, as per the two new texts, the Aparājita-pracchā and the Vāstusāra of Thakhura Peru:

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The A. P.—vide Pr. Laks. p. 271 (the Mānasāra also hints at it) has bestowed upon the Tīrthaṅkaras their respective colours and accordingly Candra-prabha and Puṣpadanta (?) should be sculptured as white; Padmaprabha and Dharma as red; Supārśva and Pārśva Nāthas as green; Nemi as black; Malli as blue and the remaining ones as golden.

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**Evolution of the Jina-icons :—**A word may also be said here on the evolution of Jina icons illustrating the different phases of the Jain iconography as found in Indian sculpture. This development of Jina-images may be viewed in three stages of development of (i) Pre-Kushan (ii) Kushana and (iii) the Gupta ;—corresponding to the three stages of iconology in which they were conceived namely simple images (ofcourse with certain symbols), without any characteristic lāñchana the developed paraphernalia of an image for worship and thirdly endowed with lāñchanas together with the accessories and Cinhas etc. The earliest historical representation of the Jinas was found in the Ayāgapaṭas (the tablets of homage) discovered at the Kankali Tila of Mathura. Three of them show the Tīrthankara figure seated with hands laid in the lap. Some of the Jain Aṣṭamaṅgala-symbols such as a pair of fish, a svastika etc. also figure here, but there is hardly any specific lāñchana characteristic of a particular Jina by which we can recognize him. ‘One tablet, however, shows the figure of a Jina, which by its mark of snake-canopy, we can identify as that of Pārśvanātha’; Brindavana, therefore, concludes (J. I. p. 47) : ‘The reprentation of Jinas in these Ayāgapaṭas of pre-Kushan age, as may be proved from the script of the inscriptions on them, appear to be the earliest in the stages of Jain iconography. Thus we can infer that in the first stage of iconic development Jinas had no lānchanas or distinctive marks, the Pārśva figure had the invariable symbol of snake-canopy and some of the Aṣṭamāṅgalikas had been very primitive in their growth.’

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The second stage of Jain iconography is illustrated in the varieties of the Jinas of the Kushan school which may be said to be of three types: first in which the Jina figures form a part of a sculptured panel; second in which figures are represented as images of worship and third show figures in the middle of Ayāgapaṭas. In these ‘the image-type’ of Jinas have some noticeable peculiarities such as seated figures have no attendants on sides but have a devotional scene on the pedestal; standing figures are nude and are attended by two Gandharvas. Dharmacakra symbol in its simple representation is also found on the Kushan images.

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‘The Gupta period showed a marked develoment in the iconographic characteristics of a Jina figure. Not only do we see in such images, the particular Lānchanas incorporated but miniature figures of a Yakṣa, and a Śāsanadevatā invariably included. Other marks such as a trilinear umbrella, a drum-player surmounting it, a pair of elephants on two sides of the umbrella and a Dharma-cakra symbol attended by a pair of either bulls or deer form parts of a Jain sculpture’. ‘In no sculpture of Kushan age hailing from Mathura, the Tīrthaṅkara figure is seen attended by either a Yakṣa or a Yakṣiṇī, but in the Gupta onwards, it was a stereotyped canon with the sculptors.’

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**Jain Quadruple**—In place of Hindu Trinity the Jainas have also a remarkable representation in art. It is popularly known as ‘Caumukhi’ and has a further name of ‘Sarvatobhadra-Pratimā.’ The most important of the Tīrthankaras are represented here on the four sides with their characteristic symbols.

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II. Yakṣas and Yakṣiṇīs

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—**Yakṣas** as a class of demi-gods had existed in popular belief and in literary traditions of the Hindus much earlier than the rise of Jainism. Hence their association with Jain images is an interesting characteristic not only of the Jain pantheon but also of the Jains themselves. Kubera, the lord of Yakṣas and king of Alakā and the treasurer of the Devas is a popular knowledge. Brindavan therefore observes: ‘The Yakṣas are, in Indian tradition, regarded as the presiding spirits over wealth and therefore it is easy to see why Jains who represent a merchantile class specially endeared themselves to the cult and appropriated them specially among the class of their Dundhi-devas or highest divinities.’

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In Indian sculpture the representation of Yakṣas as Vyantaradevatās was the most favourite with the sculptors and was also very fascinating to the public. A host of their images are found on every site of renown. In Jain images their association is two-fold—firstly as attendants to their masters, the Tīrthankaras and secondly as time passed and the Yakṣa-cult obtained greater veneration among the Jains we also find their detached independent images in the ancient ruins.

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‘According to the Jain belief, Indra appoints one Yakṣa and one Yakṣiṇī to serve, as attendants, each Tīrthankara. The Yakṣa would be on his right side and Yakṣiṇī on his left. Thus they also came to be called Śāsanadevatās or attendant spirits. According to Hemacandra, a Yakṣa originates from the particular religious spirit of a Jina ‘तत्तीर्थजन्मा’ ‘तत्तीर्थभू:’. Hence we can take in all probability, that the Yakṣa was the leader of the desciples and Yakṣiṇī was the first female convert’. Again ‘as Yakṣas and Yakṣiṇīs were leader-disciples of the Jinas, they had been chosen from the rich merchantile class and some of them had represented as bankers. In actual images, we find them decorated in red jewels and characterised with the symbol of money-bags etc.’

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With this introduction to this important element of Jain iconography—the association of Yakṣa-images with the Jina-images, let us briefly tabulate their vāhana·lāñchana as an essential characteristic of their images (other details may be seen in the Pr. Laks. p. 272-4). Their names have already been mentioned in the Tīrthaṅkara-tabulations below and therefore in the following only their respective vāhan-lāñchanas find place in serial order on the authority of the two important iconographical texts—the A. P. and the V. S.:—

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III. The 16 Śruta-or Vidyā Devis— are also an important class of Jain images, their names and lakṣaṇas in many respects, correspond to those of the Yakṣiṇīs. Brindavana says: ‘Of all the conceptions found in the Jain Iconography, none is so original as the conception of the Vidyādevīs or the goddesses of learning’ to which the present writer most respectfully would differ. They are a combination of so many Hindu goddesses modelled on the Yakṣiṇīs by the Jains. The Jains make a special ceremony of Sarsvatīpūjā (Sarsvati heading the 16 Śruta-or Vidyā-devis) on the Śukla Pañcami day of the Kārtika month called by them Jain-Pañcami.

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Without going into their details of the vāhanas, the lāñchanas—the weapons etc., (which are easily understandable in the writer's Pr. Laks. p 274-75) let us only tabulate their names:

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**IV. Dikpalas.** Like the majority of Hindu gods imported into the Jain pantheon, the Dikpālas were a direct over-taking. They are also called lokapālas and are also worshipped as Vāstu-devatās. Brindavana says that one Śvetāmbara text makes them functioning as Kumāras, who differ very little in nature from the gods of quarters.

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A very succinct description of these Dikpālas has been made by me in my Pratīmā-Vijñāna and the reader is referred to read them there. The names of the ten Dikpālas however may be enumerated here along with their overlordship of the directions:

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**V. Other miscellaneous deities**—have also a tradition both in worship and art among the Jains and a few words may be said on them. Only a few among them may be mentioned here:

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**Harinegameśi or Naigameśa**—is represented in sculpture as a male figure, either with the head of a ram or antelope or a goat. He is accredited for granting the boon of child-birth. He is not altogether a new Jain origin. His affinity with Dakṣa Prajāpati is beyond donbt.

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**Kṣetrapāla**—is a Bhairava and seems to be the master of the Yoginīs His iconology is bewildering. He has 20 hands with many weapons, matted hair, a snake as his holy thread and he rides on a dog.

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**Gaṇeśa, Lakṣmī, Śānti & Yogins**—Gaṇeśa & Lakṣmī are equally adorable among the Jainas; but the conception of *Santi Devi* is really unique among the Jainas. As regards the Yoginis they are a Tāntric influence from which no cult could escape.

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**Illustrations:** In the end the following tabulation of more famous Jain images in Indian sculpture will suffice for our present study:

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Linked texts (11)

Agnipurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Mānasāra — Sanskrit
Bṛhatsaṃhitā — Varāhamihira, Sanskrit
Kalpasūtra — Bhadrabāhu, Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit
Svayambhūstotra — Samantabhadra, Sanskrit
Aṃtagaḍadasāo — Sudharman, Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit
Śrāvastī
Mahet
Aparājitapṛcchā — Bhuvanadeva, Sanskrit
Abhidhānacintāmaṇi — Hemacandra, Sanskrit
Vāstusāra (Ṭhakkura Pheru) — Ṭhakkura Pheru, Prakrit