Pramāṇa · Search · About · API

Social and Rural Economy of Northern India, cir. 600 B.C.–200 A.D. v2: Volume 2

Social and Rural Economy of Northern India, cir. 600 B.C.–200 A.D. v2

Language
English

Contents

Volume 2

Front matter

v2.c28.1

The first of these, the *Gospel of the Hebrews*, was used by the Jewish Christians of Palestine, and was probably a version of the Gospel of Matthew, though it contained some traditions not found in our canonical books. The *Gospel of the Egyptians* was used by the ascetic sects of Egypt, and was marked by a strong tendency towards mysticism and asceticism. The *Gospel of Peter* was used by the Docetists, and taught that Christ did not really suffer, but only appeared to do so.

v2.c28.2

These gospels, and others like them, were not accepted by the Church as a whole, and were gradually lost or suppressed. The Church, however, felt the need for a standard collection of writings that would serve as a guide for faith and practice. This led to the formation of the New Testament canon, a process that took several centuries to complete.

v2.c28.3

The first step in this process was the collection of the letters of Paul, which were widely circulated among the churches. Then came the four Gospels, which were accepted as the authoritative accounts of the life and teachings of Jesus. The Acts of the Apostles and the other epistles were gradually added, and finally the Book of Revelation.

v2.c28.4

By the end of the second century, the core of the New Testament was generally accepted by the Church. The process of canonization was not a formal act of a council, but rather a gradual recognition by the churches of the writings that were most valuable for their life and worship. It was only in the fourth century that the canon was formally closed by the councils of the Church.

v2.c28.5

The formation of the New Testament canon was a crucial event in the history of the Church. It provided a standard of faith and practice that helped to unify the Church and to protect it from the influence of heretical sects. It also ensured that the teachings of Jesus and the apostles would be preserved for future generations.

v2.c28.6

The first of these, the *Gospel of the Hebrews*, was used by the Jewish Christians of Palestine, and was probably a version of the Gospel of Matthew, though it contained some traditions not found in our canonical books. The *Gospel of the Egyptians* was used by the ascetic sects of Egypt, and was marked by a strong tendency towards mysticism and asceticism. The *Gospel of Peter* was used by the Docetists, and taught that Christ did not really suffer, but only appeared to do so.

v2.c28.7

These gospels, and others like them, were not accepted by the Church as a whole, and were gradually lost or suppressed. The Church, however, felt the need for a standard collection of writings that would serve as a guide for faith and practice. This led to the formation of the New Testament canon, a process that took several centuries to complete.

v2.c28.8

The first step in this process was the collection of the letters of Paul, which were widely circulated among the churches. Then came the four Gospels, which were accepted as the authoritative accounts of the life and teachings of Jesus. The Acts of the Apostles and the other epistles were gradually added, and finally the Book of Revelation.

v2.c28.9

By the end of the second century, the core of the New Testament was generally accepted by the Church. The process of canonization was not a formal act of a council, but rather a gradual recognition by the churches of the writings that were most valuable for their life and worship. It was only in the fourth century that the canon was formally closed by the councils of the Church.

v2.c28.10

The formation of the New Testament canon was a crucial event in the history of the Church. It provided a standard of faith and practice that helped to unify the Church and to protect it from the influence of heretical sects. It also ensured that the teachings of Jesus and the apostles would be preserved for future generations.

v2.c28.11

The first of these, the *Gospel of the Hebrews*, was used by the Jewish Christians of Palestine, and was probably a version of the Gospel of Matthew, though it contained some traditions not found in our canonical books. The *Gospel of the Egyptians* was used by the ascetic sects of Egypt, and was marked by a strong tendency towards mysticism and asceticism. The *Gospel of Peter* was used by the Docetists, and taught that Christ did not really suffer, but only appeared to do so.

v2.c28.12

These gospels, and others like them, were not accepted by the Church as a whole, and were gradually lost or suppressed. The Church, however, felt the need for a standard collection of writings that would serve as a guide for faith and practice. This led to the formation of the New Testament canon, a process that took several centuries to complete.

v2.c28.13

The first step in this process was the collection of the letters of Paul, which were widely circulated among the churches. Then came the four Gospels, which were accepted as the authoritative accounts of the life and teachings of Jesus. The Acts of the Apostles and the other epistles were gradually added, and finally the Book of Revelation.

v2.c28.14

By the end of the second century, the core of the New Testament was generally accepted by the Church. The process of canonization was not a formal act of a council, but rather a gradual recognition by the churches of the writings that were most valuable for their life and worship. It was only in the fourth century that the canon was formally closed by the councils of the Church.

v2.c28.15

The formation of the New Testament canon was a crucial event in the history of the Church. It provided a standard of faith and practice that helped to unify the Church and to protect it from the influence of heretical sects. It also ensured that the teachings of Jesus and the apostles would be preserved for future generations.

v2.c28.16

The first of these, the *Gospel of the Hebrews*, was used by the Jewish Christians of Palestine, and was probably a version of the Gospel of Matthew, though it contained some traditions not found in our canonical books. The *Gospel of the Egyptians* was used by the ascetic sects of Egypt, and was marked by a strong tendency towards mysticism and asceticism. The *Gospel of Peter* was used by the Docetists, and taught that Christ did not really suffer, but only appeared to do so.

v2.c28.17

These gospels, and others like them, were not accepted by the Church as a whole, and were gradually lost or suppressed. The Church, however, felt the need for a standard collection of writings that would serve as a guide for faith and practice. This led to the formation of the New Testament canon, a process that took several centuries to complete.

v2.c28.18

The first step in this process was the collection of the letters of Paul, which were widely circulated among the churches. Then came the four Gospels, which were accepted as the authoritative accounts of the life and teachings of Jesus. The Acts of the Apostles and the other epistles were gradually added, and finally the Book of Revelation.

v2.c28.19

By the end of the second century, the core of the New Testament was generally accepted by the Church. The process of canonization was not a formal act of a council, but rather a gradual recognition by the churches of the writings that were most valuable for their life and worship. It was only in the fourth century that the canon was formally closed by the councils of the Church.

v2.c28.20

The formation of the New Testament canon was a crucial event in the history of the Church. It provided a standard of faith and practice that helped to unify the Church and to protect it from the influence of heretical sects. It also ensured that the teachings of Jesus and the apostles would be preserved for future generations.

v2.c28.21

The first of these, the *Gospel of the Hebrews*, was used by the Jewish Christians of Palestine, and was probably a version of the Gospel of Matthew, though it contained some traditions not found in our canonical books. The *Gospel of the Egyptians* was used by the ascetic sects of Egypt, and was marked by a strong tendency towards mysticism and asceticism. The *Gospel of Peter* was used by the Docetists, and taught that Christ did not really suffer, but only appeared to do so.

v2.c28.22

These gospels, and others like them, were not accepted by the Church as a whole, and were gradually lost or suppressed. The Church, however, felt the need for a standard collection of writings that would serve as a guide for faith and practice. This led to the formation of the New Testament canon, a process that took several centuries to complete.

v2.c28.23

The first step in this process was the collection of the letters of Paul, which were widely circulated among the churches. Then came the four Gospels, which were accepted as the authoritative accounts of the life and teachings of Jesus. The Acts of the Apostles and the other epistles were gradually added, and finally the Book of Revelation.

v2.c28.24

By the end of the second century, the core of the New Testament was generally accepted by the Church. The process of canonization was not a formal act of a council, but rather a gradual recognition by the churches of the writings that were most valuable for their life and worship. It was only in the fourth century that the canon was formally closed by the councils of the Church.

v2.c28.25

The formation of the New Testament canon was a crucial event in the history of the Church. It provided a standard of faith and practice that helped to unify the Church and to protect it from the influence of heretical sects. It also ensured that the teachings of Jesus and the apostles would be preserved for future generations.

v2.c28.26

OF NORTHERN INDIA

v2.c28.27

BY ATINDRANATH BOSE, M.A., Ph.D. READER IN HISTORY, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA

v2.c28.29

FIRMA K. L. MUKHOPADHYAY CALCUTTA

v2.c28.30

Published by FIRMA K. L. MUKHOPADHYAY, 6/1A, Bancharam Akrur Lane, Calcutta-12.

v2.c28.31

1st Edition 1946

v2.c28.32

Printed by A. C. Ghosh GHOSH PRINTING HOUSE PRIVATE LTD. 17A, British Indian Street, Calcutta-1

Volume II. Trade & Commerce

v2.c29.2

The first of these, the *Gospel of the Hebrews*, was used by the Jewish Christians of Palestine, and was probably a version of the Gospel of Matthew, though it contained some traditions not found in our canonical books. The *Gospel of the Egyptians* was used by the ascetic sects of Egypt, and was marked by a strong tendency towards mysticism and asceticism. The *Gospel of Peter* was used by the Docetists, and taught that Christ did not really suffer, but only appeared to do so.

v2.c29.3

These gospels, and others like them, were not accepted by the Church as a whole, and were gradually lost or suppressed. The Church, however, felt the need for a standard collection of writings that would serve as a guide for faith and practice. This led to the formation of the New Testament canon, a process that took several centuries to complete.

v2.c29.4

The first step in this process was the collection of the letters of Paul, which were widely circulated among the churches. Then came the four Gospels, which were accepted as the authoritative accounts of the life and teachings of Jesus. The Acts of the Apostles and the other epistles were gradually added, and finally the Book of Revelation.

v2.c29.5

By the end of the second century, the core of the New Testament was generally accepted by the Church. The process of canonization was not a formal act of a council, but rather a gradual recognition by the churches of the writings that were most valuable for their life and worship. It was only in the fourth century that the canon was formally closed by the councils of the Church.

v2.c29.6

The formation of the New Testament canon was a crucial event in the history of the Church. It provided a standard of faith and practice that helped to unify the Church and to protect it from the influence of heretical sects. It also ensured that the teachings of Jesus and the apostles would be preserved for future generations.

Abbreviations

v2.c30.1

| An. | Anguttaranikāya | Peri. | Periplus of the |
| Āpast | Āpastamba | | Erythrean Sea |
| Arr. | Arrian's Indica | Ptol. | Ptolemy's |
| Arr. Anab. | Arrian's Anabasis | | Geography |
| Arth. | Arthaśāstra of | Pug. | Puggalapannatti |
| | Kauṭilya | Pv. | Petavatthu |
| Av. | Atharvaveda | PvA. | Petavatthu |
| Baudh. | Baudhāyana | | Aṭṭhakathā |
| Ch. Dhp. | Chinese Dhamma- | Rām. | Rāmāyaṇa |
| | pada (Beal) | Rv. | Ṛgveda |
| Cp. | Cariyapiṭaka | Sn. | Samyuttanikāya |
| Cv. | Cullavagga | Śp. | Śāntiparva |
| Dhp. | Dhammapada | | Mahābhārata |
| DhpA. | Dhammapada | Str. | Strabo's |
| | Aṭṭhakathā | | Geography |
| Diod. | Diodorus | Śuk. | Śukranīti |
| Dn. | Dīghanikāya | Sut. | Suttanipāta |
| E. I. | Epigraphia Indica | Therag. | Theragāthā |
| Gaut. | Gautama | Therig. | Therigāthā |
| Jāt. | Jātaka | Ud. | Udāna |
| J. S. | Jaina Sutras | Vāś. | Vāśiṣṭha |
| | (Jacobi) | Vbh. | Vibhanga |
| Kāṭ. | Kātyāyana | VbhA. | Vibhanga |
| Mah. | Mahāvastu | | Aṭṭhakathā |
| Mbh. | Mahābhārata | Vin. | Vinaya |
| Mil. | Milindapañho | Viṣ. | Viṣṇu |
| Mn. | Majjhimanikāya | Vṛ. | Vṛhaspati |
| Mv. | Mahāvagga | Vv. | Vimānavatthu |
| Nār. | Nārada | VvA. | Vimānavatthu |
| | | | Aṭṭhakathā |
| | | Yāj. | Yājñavalkya |

v2.c30.2

Page references to Pali texts are given from P.T.S. editions.

Bibliography

v2.c31.1

Texts and Translations

v2.c31.2

Publications of the Pali Text Society. T. Ganapati Sastri : Arthaśāstra of Kauṭilya (text) Shamsastri : " (text & translation). Jolly & Schmidt : " " Panchanan Tarkaratna : The Rāmāyaṇa (text & Bengali trans.). P. C. Roy : The Mahābhārata (text & trans.). B. K. Sarkar : The Śukranītisāra (trans) Max Müller (ed) : S. B. E., vol. II, pt. i, Laws of Āpastamba & Gautama. ‘ " " VII, " Viṣṇu. " " XIV, ii, " Vāsiṣṭha & Baudhāyana. " " XXV, " Manu " " XXXIII, " Nārada & Vṛhaspati. " " XXII, XLV, Jaina Sutras. " " XIII, XVII, XX. Vinaya Texts. " " X, the Dhammapada & the Suttanipāta. " " XXXV, XXXVI. Questions of Milinda. Beal : Chinese Dhammapada. B. C. Law : Study of the Mahāvastu. " Chariyapiṭaka. Rhys Davids : The Dīghanikāya (trans. Dialogues of the Buddha), Chalmers : The Majjhimanikāya (trans. Further Dialogues). Hare : The Anguttaranikāya. Mrs. R. Davids : The Samyuttanikāya. " Psalms of the Early Buddhists (trans. of Theragāthā. " (trans. of Therigāthā). Fausböll : The Jātakas (text). Cowell (ed) : " (trans.). McCrindle : Ancient India as described by Megasthenes & Arrian " " Ptolemy. " " " in Classical Literature. Schoff : The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea. Watters : Yuan Chwang. Beal : Buddhist Records of the Western World.

v2.c31.3

Epigraphia Indica. Annual Reports of Archaeological Survey. Hultzsch : Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum vol. I. Bühler & Burgess : Archaeological Survey of Western India. B. M. Barua : Barhut. Fleet : Gupta Inscriptions. South Indian Inscriptions : Arch. Sur. of India.

v2.c31.4

Books and Monographs

v2.c31.5

Richard Fick : Die sociale Gliederung im Nordöstlichen Indien zu Buddhas Zeit. Rhys Davids : Buddhist India. N. C. Banerji : Economic Life & Progress in Ancient India, vol. I. J. N. Samaddar : Economic Condition of Ancient India. Das : Economic History of Ancient India. Pran Nath : Economic Condition of Ancient India. M. A. Buch : Economic Life in Ancient India, Appadorai : Economic Condition of Southern India. Cambridge History of India, Vol. I. Rhys Davids : Pali Dictionary. Ratilal Mehta : Social Life in the Jatakas. C. V. Vaidya : Epic India. B. C. Law (ed) : Buddhistic Studies. Spence Hardy : Manual of Buddhism. Washburn Hopkins : India Old & New. Senart : Les Castes dans l'Inde. Zimmer Altindisches Leben. H. C. Raychaudhury : Political History of Ancient India. Krishnaswamy Aiyengar : Ancient India. Macdonell & Keith : Vedic Index of Names & Places. Imperial Gazetteer. Nandalal De : Geographical Dictionary of Ancient & Mediaeval India. Cunningham : Ancient Geography of India. B. C. Law : Geography of Early Buddhism. U. N. Ghoshal : Hindu Revenue System. " Agrarian System in Ancient India. M. H. Gopal : Mauryan Public Finance.

v2.c31.6

Baden Powell : Land Revenue in Bengal. ” Indian Village Community. Henry Maine : Village Communities of East and West. A. S. Altekar : A History of Village Communities of Western India. R. C. Majumdar : Corporate Life in Ancient India. R. K. Mukerji : Local Self-Government in Ancient India. P. N. Banerji : Public Administration in Ancient India. K. P. Jayaswal : Hindu Polity. Moreland : Agrarian System of Moslem India. B. B. Dutt : Town Planning in Ancient India. R. K. Mukerji : Indian Shipping. Rhys Davids : Numismata Orientalia—Ancient Coins & Measures of Ceylon. Cunningham : Coins of Ancient India. Rapson : Catalogue of Coins of the Andhra Dynasty, the Western Ksatraps, etc. S. K. Maity : Economic Life of Northern India in Gupta period.

v2.c31.7

Papers

v2.c31.8

Mrs. Rhys Davids : Early Economic Conditions in Northern India,—J.R.A.S. 1901. Kalipada Mitra : Sidelight on Ancient Indian Social Life,—I.R.A.S.B. XXIX. B. C. Sen : Studies in the Jatakas,—Jour. Dept. of Letters,—C. U., XX. H. C. Roy : Economic Policy & Functions of Kautilyan State,—J. D. L., XII. R. G. Basak : Land-sale Documents of Ancient Bengal,—Asutosh Silver Jubilee vols. 3. 2. P. N. Ramaswami : Early History of Indian Famines,—Ind. Ant., LII. Bal Krishna : Hindu Taxation System,—Indian Journal of Economics, VIII. Wieghts in Ancient India,—J.B.O.R.S. XIV. Keneddy : Early Commerce between India & Babylon,—J.R.A.S., 1898. Gokuldas De : Caste & Professions in the Jatakas,—Calcutta Review, XLI. 106. Slavery in the Jatakas,—J.B.O.R.S., IX.

Outline of Work

v2.c32.1

BOOK III

v2.c32.2

CH. I. Development and Organisation of Trade

v2.c32.3

pp. 1-14

v2.c32.4

Trade—a natural sequel to industry. The different trades. Market place. The small trader or hawker. Big traders : Caravan. Correspondents. Wholesale and retail trade.

v2.c32.5

Corporate organisation. Partnership and guilds.

v2.c32.6

Trade methods. Speculation. Transaction on credit. Advertisement and publicity. Depression. The successful vendor.

v2.c32.7

The seṭṭhi : his fabulous wealth. Stores. His relation with king ; with fellow merchants and citizens. Hereditary office ? Assignee of tolls. His unofficial rank. Administrative function. Benevolent work.

v2.c32.8

CH. II. Price and Market

v2.c32.9

pp. 15-25

v2.c32.10

Free bargain : haggling. Price quotations. Customary rates and indeterminate price. Price-fixing. The court-valuer. Price regulation. Statute-fixed prices. Cornering and inflation of price. Proportion between big and small trade.

v2.c32.11

Standard of living.

v2.c32.12

CH. III. The Metric Systems : Disorder in Market

v2.c32.13

pp. 26-39

v2.c32.14

Fluidity of weights and measures. Standard weights. Linear measures. Square measures. Fluctuation between places and times.

v2.c32.15

Dishonest dealings. False scales, coins, and measures. State as an exemplar. The malpractices and fines. Adulteration. The sinister buyer. From chaos to order.

v2.c32.16

CH. IV. Overland Trade and Trade Routes.

v2.c32.17

pp. 40-50

v2.c32.18

Inland trade. The five road systems. (1) North south : Pratiṣṭhāna-Śravasti, Ancillary routes. Ujjayinī Bhṛgukaccha-Tagara. (2) Southwest-southeast : Bhṛgu-kaccha-Kauśāmbi-Tamralipti. (3) East-west : Pāṭaliputra-Paṭala. (4) East-north-west : Campā-Puṣkalāvati. (5) Southwest-northwest : Bhṛgukaccha-Puṣkalāvati. Central Asiatic routes. Insecurity.

v2.c32.19

Road-making and maintenance. Transit. Dangers of overland trade.

v2.c32.20

Police,—civil and mercenary. Difficulties of caravan journey. The motive force of gain.

v2.c32.21

Growth of maritime trade. Ship-building industry. Tonnage of ships. Freight charges. Professional crews and pilots. The compass and the crow. The seaport or pattana.

v2.c32.22

India in international trade. Mesopotamia; the Euphrates route; Iran,—imports and exports. The Mediterranean or Nile route; Arabia, Socotra, Berbera, Arab monopoly in Red sea; Egypt, development of Egyptian trade, Indo-Egyptian trade routes. Arab-Roman rivalry. Roman Empire, Indian goods in Roman market, exports and imports. Indo-Roman trade curve.

v2.c32.23

The Southern trade. The Tamil countries and Ceylon. Burma and Indonesia.

v2.c32.24

History of foreign trade. The Mauryas. The Sakas. The Andhras, Kalingas and Vangas. The Kusanas.

v2.c32.25

Dangers of the sea. Stories of shipwreck. The tidal bore at Cutch and Cambay. Piracy, the Konkan coast. The motive force of gain.

v2.c32.26

CH. VI. State Levies and State Control on Commerce. pp. 78-95

v2.c32.27

Intervention of State. Taxation of commerce.

v2.c32.28

Practice: the sulka: protection, moderation; reduction and remission: assignment of toll receipts, subsidy and loan. Realisation of toll, suppression of smuggling. State monopolies. Control by the Sakas, protection. Control by the Mauryas, rigorous and drastic.

v2.c32.29

Theory: principles of assessment. The sannidhātr. Encouragement of import. The charges. The sulka or toll rates. The dvāradeya or gate due. The varttani or road cess. Realisation of dues and suppression of smuggling. The pranaya or benevolence. The rājakāriya or forced labour. Port dues. Monopolies. Price-fixing. Control of buying and selling. From free to regulated economy.

v2.c32.30

BOOK IV

v2.c32.31

BANKING AND CURRENCY

v2.c32.32

CH. I. Money-Lending and Credit pp. 101-111

v2.c32.33

Productive industries and unproductive business. From money to money-lending. Business loan. Famine loan. Instruments of credit:

v2.c32.34

pledge, surety. Bond of debt; acquittance. Rate of interest; discriminating and differential rates; accumulation; forfeiture and moratorium. Illegal rates, condemnation of usury. Inheritance of debt and credit. Repudiation and debt suit. Service and slavery for default. Forcible realisation. Punishment for unpaid debt. Insolvency. The debtor's plight.

v2.c32.35

CH. II. Banking pp. 112-118

v2.c32.36

Hoarding. Deposit and its laws. Origin of banking,—economic influence. Corporate banks. Industrial banks. Fixed deposits and endowments in guild banks. Real Property as deposit. Rate of interest on fixed deposits. Security and stability. Ubiquity of banks. Comparison between the North and the South.

v2.c32.37

CH. III. Exchange and Currency pp. 119-137

v2.c32.38

Origin of currency. Barter. Standard media of exchange. Transition to currency. Foreign or Indian origin? Foreign coins and their influence. Persian siglos. Roman aureus and denarius. Barter holds ground.

v2.c32.39

Development of currency. 'Circulating monetary weights.' Metric divisions. Attestation: punch-marks,—by traders, by local government. Local character of coin types.

v2.c32.40

Metallic contents of currency. Gold, Silver, Copper,—the standard kārṣāpaṇa, the tokens of kārṣāpaṇa, fluctuating relations. The exchange ratio,—gold and silver, gold and copper, fluctuating relations. Other metals.

v2.c32.41

State monopoly of currency? Private coinage. State regulation. Debasement of coins. The rūpasutta or science of currency and coinage.

v2.c32.42

BOOK V

v2.c32.43

OCCUPATION AND EMPLOYMENT

v2.c32.44

CH. I. Services and Royal Entourage pp. 141-154

v2.c32.45

Occupations outside the Vārttās. King's officers—amacca,—rājabhogga, rājañña, 'seventh caste.' The senior amaccas,—senāpati, purohita, mahā- seṭṭhi, gandhabba. The second grade,—uparāja, rajjuka, vohārika, bhaṇḍāgārika. The adhyakṣas.—of elephants, of horses, of cows; others, animal-doctors. The agghāpaka or court-valuer. The nagaraguttika or police commissioner. Spies Clerks. Lower incumbents. The bather and shampooer. Specialists. Artists and technicians.

v2.c32.46

Bureaucracy of the Arthaśāstra. The grades. Military and espionage service. Benefits. Payment by cash and by assignment of revenue.

v2.c32.47

CH. II. Independent Professions pp. 155-161

v2.c32.48

Teaching profession—Centres of learning, Applied education. Fees. Artistic professions.—Singer and music-player. Actor. troupes. Bards, mimes, etc. Stigmatisation.

v2.c32.49

Occult professions.—Astrologer, Soothsayer. Palmist, etc. Miscellaneous.

v2.c32.50

CH. III. Bad Livelihood

v2.c32.51

Greek observers on public morality.

v2.c32.52

1. Gangster and thief: tribal bands, ransom gangs, pilferers, cattle-lifting Gang laws. Detection and punishment.

v2.c32.53

2. Hired assassin. 3. Forger. 4. Impostor. 5. Sorcerer.

v2.c32.54

6. Gambler: gambling and betting. Perils of gambler. Licensing, revenue.

v2.c32.55

7. Tavern-keeper: drinking and dissipation, liquors. Crime-centres, Revenue.

v2.c32.56

8. Brothel-keeper.

v2.c32.57

9. Prostitute: two categories. Fees. Manners and morals. Public esteem. Revenue and espionage.

v2.c32.58

The underworld and the state.

v2.c32.59

BOOK VI

v2.c32.60

SOCIAL PHYSIOGNOMY

v2.c32.61

CH. I. Slave Labour pp. 183-201

v2.c32.62

Origin: Prisoner of war. Inherited. Born. Purchased. Gift. Mortgaged. Judicial punishment. Apostate. For. food. Debtor. Voluntary. By wager. Growth of slavery. Manumission.

v2.c32.63

Functions: Personal attendance. Domestic service. Industrial establishments. Working for hire. Prostitution of female slaves.

v2.c32.64

Code of relation. Legal position. Social position.

v2.c32.65

Actual treatment: Chain and whip, 'Slave's fare.' Run-away slave. Freed slave.

v2.c32.66

The slave and the slave class. The Ārya slave and the Śūdra slave. Indian and Western slavery.

v2.c32.67

CH. II. Hired Labour pp. 202-213

v2.c32.68

Free Labour :- agricultural and pastoral; industrial; mercantile; domestic; miscellaneous, Origin in pauperism. Modes of payment. Degradation and devaluation of labour. Wage and Profit rates. Free contract? Terms of hire. Slave labour and hired labour. The Labourer and the Outcast. Paucity of labour unrest.

v2.c32.69

CH. III. Despised Castes and Races pp. 214-240

v2.c32.70

The hīnajāti

v2.c32.71

1. The Caṇḍāla: Origin. Appearance. Arts and professions; corpse-burner, executioner, hunter, magician. Habitat. Social segregation. Social and economic disabilities. General status.

v2.c32.72

II. The Pukkusa; Origin. Profession. Status

v2.c32.73

III. The Nasāda: Origin and identity. Racial and professional stigma. The hunting profession, luḍḍaka, kevaṭṭa. Methods, equipments and accessories for hunting and fishing. Habitat. Social status.

v2.c32.74

IV. The Veṇa: Ethnico-professional castes. Status. Craft.

v2.c32.75

V. The Rathakāra: Origin and degradation. Craft; chariot-building, leather-work. Status.

v2.c32.76

The apasada or mixed castes. Inferior races.

v2.c32.77

CH. IV. Despised Crafts and Callings pp. 241-253

v2.c32.78

The hīnasippa. (1) Basket-maker (2) Cobbler (3) Potter (4) Weaver (5) Barber (6) Acrobat (7) Snake-charmer (8) Snake-doctor (9) Physician (10) Miscellaneous (11) Vagrancy.

v2.c32.79

CH. V. Class Basis of Social Economy. pp. 254-275

v2.c32.80

The real India. Subjective character of canonical and court literature. Material for peoples' history. Comparative objectivity of popular literature.

v2.c32.81

Popular religion. Aboriginal fetishism. Aryan elemental gods. Symbolical gods. Growth of sects and rituals. Priesthood, Rise to wealth and power. Official and private bounties. Corruption. Regular and secular clergy.

v2.c32.82

Kings and military lords. Merchants. Economic background of Buddhist heresy.

v2.c32.83

Slaves and wage-earners. Economic determinism in social gradation. The pariah—his position *vis-à-vis* the Saṃgha. Social contrast.

v2.c32.84

Class compromise. Immaturity of class consciousness. Lower middle class the centre of gravity. Exploited elements a composite body. Ignorance and subjection of the Śūdra.

v2.c32.85

CH. VI. Material Background of Indian Culture pp. 276-279

v2.c32.86

APPENDIX—The date of the Arthaśāstra. pp. 280-293

v2.c32.87

INDEX pp. 294-308

v2.c32.88

DEVELOPMENT AND ORGANISATION OF TRADE

v2.c32.89

Trade—a natural sequel to industry. The different trades. Market place. The small trader or hawker. Big traders : Caravan. Correspondents. Wholesale and retail trade.

v2.c32.90

Corporate organisation. Partnership and guilds.

v2.c32.91

Trade methods. Speculation. Transaction on credit. Advertisement and publicity. Depression. The successful vendor.

v2.c32.92

The *seṭṭhi*: his fabulous wealth. Stores. His relation with king; with fellow merchants and citizens. Hereditary office? Assignee of tolls. His unofficial rank. Administrative function. Benevolent work.

Trade follows industry

v2.c32.s1.1

Trade is a natural sequel to industry. In the wake of a *sippa* must follow *vohāra*. For an industrial product must, as a matter of course, look for a market for its disposal. Such markets and such transactions are necessary concomitants of any industrial effort and occur in the earliest stages of economic life. With the specialisation of industries and their localisation in particular places, whether in a whole country or in a village or in a small street of a town, this commercial intercourse multiplies in proportion. The horse-producing Sindhu and the cloth-manufacturing Kāśī are brought into the same intimate economic relationship as were formerly the animal-breeder and weaver plying their trade side by side in the same village. Exchange of goods bound down the whole land of India, particularly the north, in a close economic unity to which even Rome, Egypt, Arabia, Persia, China, Indonesia and farther East were brought into brisk commercial intercourse.

v2.c32.s1.2

*Stockists and shops*

v2.c32.s1.3

Between the producer and the consumer stood the stockist and the middleman. The vendor stocked various goods from producers in his shop for sale. We know of grain merchants (dhaññika) who kept double-mouthed sample-bags (ubhatimukhā mutoli) to keep samples in of various sorts of grain (Dn. XXII. 5). Merchants traded in diverse article like fruits, herbs, sugarcane, honey, ointment, planks of wood, tooth-brush and smoking-pipe (Jāt. IV. 495). Among traders, practising in a town are dealers in cloth (dussika), in perfumes (gandhika), groceries (paṇṇika), fruits (phalika), and roots (mūlika) (Mil. 331, 262). Tulādhāra, the trader lived by selling juices (rasa), scents (gandha), barks and timbers, herbs, fruits and roots¹ (Mbh. XII. 261. 2). The shops were set up in rows on the two sides of the main thoroughfares or around the market, place (singhāṭaka, gāmamajjha, bhaṇḍa-bhajanīyam ṭhānam) with a tendency for shops of the same wares to group together forming a special bazar of their own.

v2.c32.s1.4

¹ The producer and the dealer are not always clearly distinguished, e.g., the gandhika may mean one who prepares scents as well as one who stocks and sells them. So an odonika is both a caterer and a distributor of foodstuffs.

v2.c32.s1.5

*The hawker*

v2.c32.s1.6

Shops were not always stationary. They might be moving. In the Jātakas the hawker is a common sight. A merchant goes about from village to village hawking goods on a donkey's back (vāṇijo gadrabhabhārakena vohāraṃ karonto vicarati, II. 109 ff.). A petty hawker shouts with his wagon in the middle of the village (gāmamajjhe) with "buy my cucumber, buy my cucumber" (I. 205). A grocer's daughter (paṇṇikadhītā) hawks jujubes in a basket "buy my jujubes, buy my jujubes" (badarāni gaṇhatha badarāni gaṇhathā'ti, III. 21). Sometimes these people evince a higher sort of business intelligence. Two potters apportion two streets in the same town between themselves to eliminate competition and peddle their pots from door to door (I. 111).

v2.c32.s1.7

*Big trader : caravans*

v2.c32.s1.8

Besides these small traders there were big merchants who collected huge cart-loads of wares from their centres of production and sent them to distant countries where they might be sold at a higher price. The Jātakas are full of references to caravans or long lines of two-wheeled bullock carts such as is represented at Bharhut in the scene of the purchase and gift of the Jetavana. Their strength is given at the conventional figure of 500 wagons under a leader (satthavāha, I. 98, 368, 377, 404; III. 200, 403; V. 164, 471). "The carts struggled along slowly, through the forests, along the tracts from village to village kept open by the peasants. The pace never exceeded two miles an hour. Smaller streams were crossed by gullies leading down to fords, the longer ones by cart ferries."¹ Regarding one of these an interesting piece of information is given. A great caravan of one thousand carts (mahāsakaṭasattho sakaṭasahassam) was going from the East country to the West country. Wherever it went it consumed swiftly straw, wood, water and verdure (tiṇokaṭṭhodakaṃ haritavaṇṇaṃ). Now in that caravan were two caravan-leaders, each commanding one-half of the carts.² Thinking that 'wherever we go we consume everything'- they divided the caravan into two equal portions and equipped with food and provender started separately (Dn XIII. 23 ; cf. Jāt I. 98).

v2.c32.s1.9

¹ Rhys Davids : *Buddhist India*, p. 98.

v2.c32.s1.10

² So the unit of 500 under the charge of one *satthavāha* remains in tact.

v2.c32.s1.11

*Correspondents*

v2.c32.s1.12

The trade magnates had "correspondents" in big and opulent cities with whom they disposed of their goods wholesale. A correspondent and friend of Anāthapiṇḍika at the border sent 500 cart-loads of local wares to barter in the shop of the Sāvatthi merchant. The people were hospitably received, lodged and provided with money for their needs,—and given goods in exchange. A return despatch from Anāthapiṇḍika was summarily refused with insults by the border correspondent, for which however he was paid back in his own coin during the next offer from him (Jāt I 377).

v2.c32.s1.13

*Wholesale and retail trade*

v2.c32.s1.14

The wholesale dealers distributed the wares to retail dealers on a commission or share of th profit basis. The rules of the Arthaśāstra on retail sale seem to be based on the assumption that the latter did not purchase the goods and sell them in better terms to derive a middleman's profit. They were rather agents or salesmen of wholesale dealers, possibly representing several at a time. The Arthaśāstra lays down: "Retail dealers selling the merchandise of others at prices prevailing at particular localities and times shall hand over to the wholesale dealers as much of the sale proceeds and profit as is realised by them. Rules of sealed deposit shall apply here. If owing to distance in time or place there occurs any fall in the value of the merchandise, the retail dealers shall pay the value and profit at that rate which obtained when they received the merchandise."

v2.c32.s1.15

Vaiyyāvṛtyakarā yathādeśakālam vikriṇānām paṇyam yathājātamūlyamudayam ca dadyuḥ. Śeṣamupanidhinā vyākhyātam. Deśakālātipātane vā parihīṇam sampradānakālikena argheṇa maulyam-udayam ca dadyuḥ.

v2.c32.s1.16

"This rule does not hold good for servants selling their masters' wares. Such merchants as belong to trade guilds or are trustworthy and are not condemned by the king need not restore even the value of that merchandise which is lost or destroyed owing to its inherent defects or to some unforeseen accidents. But of such merchandise as is distanced by time or place, they shall restore as much value and profit as remains after making allowance for wear and tear of the merchandise."

v2.c32.s1.17

Sāmvyavahārikeṣu vā prātyayikeṣvarājavācyeṣu bhreṣopanipātābhyām naṣṭam vinaṣṭam vā mūlyamapi na dadyuḥ. Deśakālāntaritānām tu paṇyānām kṣayavyayaśuddhamūlyamudayam ca dadyuḥ. Paṇyasamavāyānām ca pratyaṃśam. III. 12.

v2.c32.s1.18

Elsewhere it is given that the trader should calculate the daily earnings of middlemen and fix that amount on which they are authorised to live; for whatever income falls between sellers and purchasers (i. e., brokerage) is different from profit.

v2.c32.s1.19

Yannisṛṣṭam upajīveyuḥ tadeṣām divsasañjātam saṃkhyāya vaṇik sthāpayet. Kretṛ-vikretro-rantarapatitam ādāyādanyam bhavati. IV. 2.

v2.c32.s1.20

This is obviously the agent's commission which is to be fixed by the trader to a rate likely to give an enterprising middleman quite a decent income.

Corporate organisation: partnership

v2.c32.s2.1

Corporate organisation as developed in industries did not progress as far in commerce. With regard to industries guild organisation was the order of the day, with commerce it was an exception, it being generally pursued individually and independently. Partnership was of course not uncommon. Vidura quotes an adage to king Dhṛtarāṣṭra that concerns of wealth should not be pursued alone (Mbh. V. 33. 50). Two merchants from Sāvatthi trade with their wares in 500 cart-loads from the East country to the West country and come back to Sāvatthi with a lucrative profit.

v2.c32.s2.2

Sāvatthivāsino hi kuṭavāṇijo ca paṇḍitavāṇijo ca dve janā pattikā hutvā pañcasakaṭasatāni bhaṇḍassa pūretvā pubbantato aparantam vicaramānā vohāraṃ katvā bahulābham labhitvā Sāvatthim paccāgaṃimsu.

v2.c32.s2.3

They then set down to divide the returns (Jāt. II 167). Similarly, two merchants from Benares dispose their wares in the country districts in partnership (dve janā ekato vaṇijjaṃ karontā laddhalābhā). They fall to quarrel over the share of the proceeds, one claiming share of a half on the strength of equal investment in stock-in-trade, another two-third on the score of superior acumen. The former wins (I. 404).

Guilds

v2.c32.s3.1

But of the seni, gāma and pūga there is hardly any reference. In the Karle Cave is recorded a gift by the gāma of traders (vaṇija-gāmasa) from Dhenukākaṭa, but nothing is known about its nature or constitution. Trade guilds seem to be conceived in the rules of Gautama (XI. 20 f.) and in the prognosis of the Arthaśāstra that traders unite to raise prices like modern corners and make a profit of cent per cent (VIII. 4). But, as has been already seen, individual tradesmen entered into similar compacts for mutual interest from their inherent business instinct, and these show at best an appreciation of the community of commercial interests. Instances of co-operation are not rare. Parties of mariners voyaging by the same vessel under a jetthaka may have chartered it in concert (Jāt. II. 128; IV. 138 ff; V. 75; VI. 34). Parties in a caravan were brought together for purposes of safety through long forest journeys and accepted the leadership of the satthavāha for guidance as to halts, watering, precautions against brigands and beasts, routes, fording, etc.¹ "Subordination was not however always ensured (Jāt. I. 108, 368; II. 295; III. 200), and the institution does not warrant the inference of any further syndicalism among traders." As regards commercial organisation, Mrs. Rhys Davids' statement stands substantially correct: that there is "no instance as yet produced from early Buddhist documents pointing to any corporate organisation of the nature of a guild or Hansa League."² Later literature gives undisputed evidences of such leagues. For example, in the Śukranīti "a sāmayikapatra or business deed is one which individuals frame after combining their shares of capital (svadhanāṃśa) for some business concern shares of capital (svadhanāṃśa) for some business concern (vyavahāra) (II. ll. 627 f.). The reason for the somewhat later development of commercial combines was probably that trade was still a wandering profession while industrial organisations depended largely upon settled relations and ties of neighbourhood.

v2.c32.s3.2

¹ For example, the merchants in a party of 1,000 under the two leaders in Dn. XXIII. 23. See supra, p. 4.

v2.c32.s3.3

² Cambridge History, p. 211.

Speculation

v2.c32.s4.1

Trade in the Jātakas is very often speculative. A young man picks up and sells a dead mouse and by successful dealings works up the capital to become rich. The last transaction is in a ship's cargo which he holds and disposes at 200,000 pieces (I. 120-122). The outlay being 1,000 the profit is 20,000 p.c. 100, 200 and 400 p.c. are the profits at which caravan masters barter their wares (I. 98 ff., 109; IV. 2). A boy begins with a humble stock-in-trade, voyages to Suvaṇṇabhūmi with some other merchants in a ship and makes enough money to recover his paternal kingdom (VI. 34).

Trade methods

v2.c32.s5.1

Indications of the development of commerce may be had from the prevalence of several trade practices. Business deeds or documents recording a description of the property purchased and the price paid for it were known among merchants (Bṛ. VIII. 7; cf. Śuk. III. 378 f.). Big deals were made on credit. The speculating young man bought the cargo of a ship on credit giving his signet ring as security. Sale by public auction after notification is witnessed by Strabo (XV. i. 50-52)¹ and in the Arthaśāstra (II. 21).

v2.c32.s5.2

¹ Vincent Smith has corrected the reading to sale after having the royal seal (Asoka).

v2.c32.s5.3

Merchants advertised their goods by singing their praise themselves (vāṇijā viya vācasanthutiya. Com : yathā vāṇijo attano bhaṇḍassa vaṇṇaṃ eva bhaṇati, V. 425) or through an agent, e.g., the hostess of a travelling tailor (tunnavāya) who on his behalf gives publicity to his profession in the village (amma vīthisabhāgaṃ ārocehi’ti, sā sakalagāme arocesi) so that in one day 1,000 pieces were earned (VI. 366). Political crises had their repercussions on business transactions. After Rama's exile the business of Ayodhyā suffered under general depression and shops remained closed for several days (Rām. II. 48. 35, 37 ; 71. 41).

v2.c32.s5.4

*The successful shopkeeper*

v2.c32.s5.5

The application, judgment, cleverness and 'connexion' of the successful shopkeeper (pāpaṇika) are interestingly discussed (An. I. 116 f. ; cf. Mn II. 7 ; Vin I. 255). He is shrewd (cakkhumā), knowing his goods (paṇiyaṃ jānāti) : this article bought for so much and sold for so much, will bring in so much money, such and such profit (idaṃ paṇiyaṃ evaṃ kītaṃ evaṃ vikkayamānaṃ ettakaṃ mūlaṃ bhavissati ettako udayo ti). He is clever (vidhūro), skilful in buying and selling goods (kusalo hoti paṇiyaṃ ketuñ ca vikketuñ ca). He inspires confidence (nissayasampanno), inasmuch as wealthy people seeing his stability give him credit. Possessed of these three characteristics, a shopkeeper in no time attains greatness and increase of wealth (tīhi angehi samannāgato pāpaṇiko na cirass' eva mahantattaṃ vā vepullattaṃ vā pāpuṇāti bhogasu).

v2.c32.s5.6

*The seṭṭhi : his wealth*

v2.c32.s5.7

Despite the absence of the guild system, that there was a certain organisation in urban business is apparent from the role of the setthi. The words śreṣṭhin and śraiṣṭhya, used in the Vedic literature, would appear from their contents, to mean ‘headman’ and ‘his position of primacy.’¹ Later, in Pali literature the setthi conveys the idea of one of the upper bourgeoisie, a great merchant or commercial magnate who sends his caravan from pubbanta to aparanta or ships his cargo across the high seas. In a more technical sense the setthi was the head of this trading class, a wealthy and popular magnate who, like the rural bhojaka and the industrial jetthaka, stood in close relation to the king. His wealth is computed at the conventional figure of 80 crores (Jāt. I. 345, 444, 466 ; II. 331 ; III. 56, 129, 300 ; IV. 1, 255 ; V. 382). He stocked huge quantities of grain in his granaries (I. 467) obviously to dispose in scarcity on advantageous terms. With his big capital he employed small craftsmen and benefited by their labour (setthim nissāya vasantassa tunnakārassa tunnakammena jīvissāma, IV. 38). The setthi of Rājagaha is competent to pay 200,000 kahāpaṇas as medical fee (Mv. VIII. 16).

v2.c32.s5.8

¹ Macdonell and Keith : Vedic Index.

Leader of merchants

v2.c32.s6.1

The compound Rājagahasetthi is a pointer to the fact that the richest merchant of a town or village, the setthi par excellence, discharged certain specific functions and had a unique position with respect to others. In the inscriptions of the Sanchi tope the setthi of a village is in several instances mentioned without his proper name, while the gahapati appears with his name and sometimes village as well.¹ His was a position of authority over the fellow traders. During his dedication of the Jetavana, Anāthapiṇḍika, the chief *seṭṭhi* of Sāvatthi was attended by 500 *seṭṭhis*.

v2.c32.s6.2

¹ The *seṭṭhi*, who appears with his name and place in the Karle Cave In., is an ordinary merchant, not the chief *seṭṭhi*.

Between king and merchants

v2.c32.s7.1

Through this leader the king maintained his contact with the mercantile community. In this capacity of a go-between the *seṭṭhi* filled one of the highest offices of state (*seṭṭhiṭṭhāna*. Jāt. I. 120 ff. ; III. 448; V. 382 ; *seṭṭhita*, Mahāvaṃso, p. 69). The *gahapati*; one of the seven jewels (ratanam) of a king is explained by Buddhaghosa as *seṭṭhi-gahapati*. This official is often seen waiting upon the king (*rājupaṭṭhānam* gato, III. 19 ; *rājupaṭṭhānam* katvā, IV. 63). His relation is sometimes informal and personal. A king desirous of renouncing the world is supplicated by his parents, wife, children, the commander-in-chief, the *seṭṭhi*, and the people. The *seṭṭhi* offers him his accumulated fortune and requests him to stay (V. 185).

Position with citizens

v2.c32.s8.1

The rich business lord probably led the co-operative efforts of merchants in his town and was very popular with his community. Presumably this popularity and influence with his community and with the people at large was the reason for his selection into king's service. The *seṭṭhi* of Rājagaha does good service both to the king and to the merchants' community (ayaṃ kho *seṭṭhi*-gahapati bahūpakāro rañño c'eva negamassa ca, Mv. VIII.

v2.c32.s8.2

16). A *setthi* in office is honoured both by the king and by citizens and countryfolk alike (*rājapūjito nagarajanapadapūjito*, V. 382). When the princes and queens fell victim to a king's furore the citizens uttered not a word; but when the *setthis* were seized for execution, the whole city was troubled and the people went with their relatives and begged for mercy (VI. 135).

Hereditary office? Social rank

v2.c32.s9.1

The *setthi* therefore was not a civil official in the sense the *senāpati* or the *amātya* was. As an intermediary, he was half an official and half a popular figure. As an official he was selected by the king on the basis of his wealth and influence (Jāt. I. 120-22). But as the son generally succeeded to his father's trade (II. 64, 236; *seṭṭhānu-seṭṭhīnaṃ kulānaṃ puttā*, Mv. I. 9. 1.) and inherited his wealth and influence, the office of the *setthi* nominally selective, tended to be hereditary. The sixth descendant of a *setthi* is found continuing in the post of his forefathers (Jāt. V. 384). There is little to distinguish between social rank and civil office in this respect.¹ The two were co-existent and a *setthi* fallen in social position was little likely to continue in the king's grace; nor would the king make an alternative selection when the son of the retired official was fit to take the mantle.

v2.c32.s9.2

¹ Cf. "......it would seem that the rank of *setthi* was hereditary, and this is confirmed by the later literature : but this applies to the social rank only, and not to the office." Rhys Davids : *Vinaya Texts*, I, p. 102.

Administrative functions

v2.c32.s10.1

The specific functions of the *setthi* as a civil official is nowhere clearly defined. A king by his decree makes a gift of the East market town to a merchant (pācinaya-vamajjhaka gāmam rājabhogena bhuñjā'ti) and makes the other thousand merchants his subordinate (sesaseṭṭino etass'-eva upaṭṭhākā hontu, VI. 344). There is hardly any authority to render seṭṭhi as ‘treasurer’¹ for which the Pali word is bhaṇḍāgārika. He may have assisted the king in framing his financial policy and advised him on the methods and rates of assessment on big business. He carried the king's orders to his fellow merchants and presumably was responsible for their execution. As emoluments for his services, the tolls, taxes and customs dues of a particular business area might be assigned to him. Sometimes he was assisted by a second (anu-seṭṭhi, Jāt. V. 384 ; Mv. I. 9. 1) from his own class. He had little to do with the king's treasury.

v2.c32.s10.2

¹ In the translation of the Jātakas under Cowell's editorship.

Municipal power

v2.c32.s11.1

With the growing industrial and commercial life of the town, the seṭṭhi rose into power and prominence and came to play a new role. As leader of the most important urban class and as a civil official of the highest rank he was the hot favourite to be entrusted with municipal administration,—to be promoted to the viṣaya-council or even to the position of Lord Mayor. The Basarh seals and the Damodarpur and Paharhpur inscriptions throw sidelights on the civil functions of the seṭṭhi. This is nothing strange for the head of a class who, like the upper bourgeoisie of the national-democratic age in Europe, was at the forefront of every liberal movement and set the example of unstinted charity. The hoarded crores of Anāthapiṇḍika, emptied for the alleviation of the miseries of the poor and for the propitiation of the Saṃgha, the great *caitya* cave at Karle and similar costly gifts at Kanheri, Mathura and Sa nchi give a glimpse into the means and ways by which they attained to their phenomenal power and popularity.

v2.c32.s11.2

PRICE AND MARKET

v2.c32.s11.3

Free bargain : haggling. Price quotations. Customary rates and indeterminate price. Price-fixing. The court-valuer. Price regulation. Statute-fixed prices. Cornering and inflation of price. Proportion between big and small trade.

v2.c32.s11.4

Standard of living.

v2.c32.s11.5

"And because they first bargain and afterwards come to terms (the priest and the king over the soma juice in terms of cow-payment) therefore, about any and everything that is for sale here, people first bargain and afterwards come to terms." (Sat. Br. III. iii. 3. 1-4.)

v2.c32.s11.6

*Free bargain : haggling*

v2.c32.s11.7

This practice of a "free bargain" unregulated by law and custom was widely prevalent up to the beginning of the 6th century B.C. Prices were determined mostly by haggling, sometimes climbing up from a single *kahāpaṇa* to 100 or 1,000 (Jāt. III. 126 f.). "The act of exchange between producer or dealer, and consumer was, both before and during the Jātaka age, a 'free' bargain, a transaction unregulated by any system of statute-fixed prices. Supply, limited by slow transport and individualistic production, but left free and stimulated, under the latter system, to efforts after excellence on the one hand and to tricks of adulteration on the other, .........sought to equate with a demand which was no doubt largely compact of customary usage and relatively unaffected by the swifter fluctuations termed fashion.”1

v2.c32.s11.8

Price quotations

v2.c32.s11.9

The statement may be best examined in the light of some available price quotations which may be arranged into the following schedule :

v2.c32.s11.10

| COMMODITY | PLACE | PRICE | REFERENCE |
| **ANIMALS** | | | |
| Slave—male or female | ... | 100 *kahāpaṇa* | Satena kītadāsa, Jāt. I. 224 ; satakītadāsī, III. 343. |
| Slave—king’s son | ... | 1,000 gold *nikkha* | VI. 547. |
| A serviceable ass | Mithilā | 8 *kahāpaṇa* | VI. 343. |
| Oxen—I pair | Benares | 24 ” | II. 305. |
| An average horse | ” | 1,000 ” | II. 306. |
| A thoroughbred foal | ” | 6,000 ” | II. 289. |
| A team of chariot horses | Mithilā | 90,000 ” | VI. 404. |
| A nice plump dog | ... | 1 ” + a cloak | II. 247. |
| A dead mouse | ... | 1 *kākaṇi* | I. 120. |
| **EATABLES** | | | |
| Meat for a chameleon | Mithilā | 1 *kākaṇi*—½ *māsaka* | VI. 346. |
| A fish | | 7 *māsaka* | II. 424. |
| A jar of spirits | Benares | 1 *kahāpaṇa* | I. 350. |

v2.c32.s11.11

| COMMODITY | PLACE | PRICE | REFERENCE |
| Ghee or oil—a small modicum | Sāvatthi | 1 „ | Vin. IV. 248 f. |
| Dinner dish for royal horse | Banaras | 100,000 „ | I. 178. |
| Royal dinner dish | „ | 100,000 „ | II. 319. |

Clothing

v2.c32.s12.1

| Nun's cloak—1 | Sāvatthi | 16 *kahāpaṇa* | Vin. IV. 256. |
| A robe for a court lady | „ | 1,000 „ | II. 24. |
| A Sivi robe | „ | 1,000 „ | IV. 401. |
| A robe of Kāsī muslin | Vedeha | 100,000 „ | Satasahassaghanikam kāsikavattham, III 11 ; VI. 403, 450, |
| Shoes or sandals—each pair according to quality | Sāvatthi | 100-1,000 „ | IV. 15. |
| Jewelled housings of a royal elephant | ... | 2,000,000 „ | VI. 488. |
| Tailoring repairs : a day's earnings in a village | Banaras | 1,000 „ | VI, 366. |

Ornaments

v2.c32.s13.1

| An ornament of a *seṭṭhi's* wife | Sāvatthi | 100,000 *kahāpaṇa* | III. 435. |
| Gold necklace fitted with sandalwood | Sivi | 100,000 „ | VI. 480 ; 1. 340. |
| Gold wreath of a *seṭṭhi's* wife | ... | 1,000 „ | Sahassaghanikam kāñcanamālam, II. 373 |

First 195 of 1,382 passages. Read on

Cites (41)