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Economic Life in Ancient India as Depicted in Jain Canonical Literature c8: Chapter II: Primary Industries

Economic Life in Ancient India as Depicted in Jain Canonical Literature c8

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English

Contents

Chapter II: Primary Industries

Meaning

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Man, from a very early age, has been making a conscious and determined effort to utilise the bounties of nature for his benefit. The primary need of man is food, clothing and shelter. Man had to look to nature to procure his prime needs. Nature provided certain things; man simply exploited them. He could raise plants from the soil and procure foodgrains, fibres, fruits and beverages. Thus, gradually, the art of agriculture grew. Man went to the rivers and sea coast to net fishes. For wood and timber, the forests had to be exploited. Mines were dug and different mineral products were extracted. Animal breeding was started and dairy farming came into existence with products like milk, butter, ghee, etc.

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Thus, man, from ancient days till now, has been looking to Nature for commodities of his use. The activities of man, concerned with producing certain articles primarily with the help of nature, relate to Primary industries. It may be distinguished from Secondary industries, e. g., Iron and Steel industry, Cotton mill industry, Sugar industry, etc., where man's role (labour, capital and organisation) is predominant.

Classification

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Primary industries may be broadly classified as under :—
1. Agriculture,
2. Horticulture—fruits, vegetables and flowers,
3. Animal breeding including dairy farming,
4. Pisciculture (fishing),
5. Forestry,
6. Mining.

1. Agriculture

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Agriculture is an art of growing plants from the soil for the benefit of mankind. The economic structure of the society as depicted in Jaina canonical literature was chiefly based on agriculture. Agriculture was the mainstay of a large section of people. ‘Phoḍīkamma’ has been used in the texts to denote the act of digging the land, ploughing and spading.¹ The holy teachings of Lord Mahāvīra disapprove fifteen occupations² for pious persons (Śrāvakas) as many living creatures are killed in pursuing these occupations. The fifteen occupations include Phoḍīkamma and these are as follows :—

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¹ *Upāsakadaśāṅga Sūtram*, Chap. I, S. 47, p. 66.

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² *Idem.*

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(i) Iṁgāla-kamma or Aṅgārakarma—making of charcoal and bricks using firewood.
(ii) Vaṇakamma—cutting of wood from the forests and bringing other forest products.
(iii) Sāḍi-kamma or Sakatakarma—making and selling of carts, chariots, etc.
(iv) Bhāḍī-kamma or Bhātikarma—transport business, giving cattle, horses, etc. on hire.
(v) Phoḍī-kamma or Sphotakarma—digging the land, quarry, mining, etc.
(vi) Daṁta vāṇijja—ivory business.
(vii) Lakkha vāṇijja—trading in lac. (viii) Rasa vāṇijja—dealing in wines.
(ix) Viṣa Vāṇijja—dealing in poisons, arms and ammunitions e.g guns, swords, arrows, etc.
(x) Keśa Vāṇijja—trading in hairs and furs.
(xi) Jaṁtapilanakamma—pressing of oilseeds, sugarcane crushing, etc.
(xii) Nillaṁchaṇa-kamma—castration of bulls. (xiii) Davaggi dāvanayā or Dāvāgni dāpana—setting forest on fire.
(xiv) Sara-daha-talāya sosaṇayā—drying up of ponds and lakes for obtaining salt, shell, etc.
(xv) Asai-Jaṇapoṣaṇayā—trafficking in women, running of brothel.

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It seems that Phoḍīkamma in the above fifteen occupations have been used in the strict sense meaning digging the land, quarry, mining, etc. In wider sense in meant agricultural operations like ploughing and spading which was allowed for the Śrāvakas also. The various texts depict that agriculture was the principal occupation of the rural people. Those following the profession of agriculture were, however, considered Āryans and not Mlecchas. There were rich peasants also who could engage labourers to work on their farms.¹

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¹ *Cf.*, *Nisītha Sūtram*, Vol. III, p. 519.

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Besides the different types of agricultural occupations, there is reference of villages, land system, agricultural operations, crops grown, etc. in different canonical texts.

Description of Village

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The centre of agro-economy was the village inhabited by a large number of families. There is mention of villages consisting of ten thousand families (dasakula sāhassieṇaṁ gāmeṇaṁ).¹ The number seems to be exaggerated, nevertheless, it depicts that villages were big in size having a large population. It had a vast area having cultivable land, pasture, forests, groves, gardens, tanks, cattlesheds, etc. Cattle constituted an important part of the household property. There is mention of a rich and affluent person (Gāthāpati) Ānanda in Upāsakadaśāṅga, who had a large number of cattle.² Such a description shows that not only the people were aware of the need of a self-sufficient agricultural economy, but had also the knowledge of ecology. They knew the importance of forests, groves, pasturelands, tank, cattle, etc. in the agricultural economy and strived to strike a balance between them.

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¹ *Cf.*, *Vyākhyā Prajñapti*, Part. XI, Chap. XI, S. 430, p. 1003.

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² *Cf.*, *Upāsakadaśāṅga Sūtram*, Chap. I, S. 4, p. 9.

Kinds of villages

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Different types of villages have been mentioned in the canonical literature. There were big as well as small villages. The ‘Gāma’ was an ordinary village, whereas ‘Gamaka’ was a smaller one. The ‘Nigama’ was probably a busy market village which was different from agricultural village. The ‘Dvāragāmas’ were situated on the outskirts of the cities and most of them were industrial villages.³

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³ *Cf.*, Jain, K. C., *op. cit.*, p. 278.

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On the basis of occupation the villages can be broadly classified into two types :—
1. Agricultural villages and
2. Industrial villages.

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Cultivation of crops was the main occupation of the people in agricultural villages. The fields known as ‘Khetta’ were situated not very far from the dwelling houses of the cultivators.⁴ In the industrial villages there was predominance of various kinds of trade and crafts. The Upāsakadaśāṅga mentions a village situated inside the town of Polāsapura having 500 pottery workshops where different varieties of earthen pots were made.¹ This indicates that there were some villages which had specialised in different crafts. There are several other instances of villages which were inhabited by persons specialising in a particular craft or trade, e. g., villages of carpenters, blacksmiths, goldsmiths, etc. Jñātādharmakathāṅga tells us of a locality known as Corapalli inhabited by thieves and robbers only.²

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⁴ *Cf.*, Sen, Madhu, *A Cultural Study of Niśītha Cūrṇi*, p. 193.

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¹ *Cf.*, *Upasakadaśāṅga Sātram*, Chap. VII, S. 181, p. 271.

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² *Cf.*, *Jñātādharmakathāṅga Sūtram*, Vol. III, Chap. XVIII, S. 3, p. 650.

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An important feature of some of the villages was that they were named after professions followed by certain castes. The villages like Brāhmaṇa grāma, Kṣatriya grāma, Baniyā grāma, Cāṇḍāla grāma were respectively inhabited by, mainly the Brāhmaṇas, Kṣatriyas, Vaiśyas and the Śūdras.³

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³ *Cf.*, Jain, K. C., *op. cit.*, p. 278.

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The description of the kinds of villages is not only interesting but also revealing. The people seemed to be well aware of a balanced economy and in this context they not only relied upon agriculture, but also developed industries and trade. The mention of Nigama and Dvāragāmas is a testimony of not only the development of industries and trade, but the level of the development of industry and trade. The dvāragāmas were just like industrial estates developed on the outskirts of cities. Thus, they not only supplied the manufactured products to the people of the cities, but supported agriculture as well. The industries being located outside the cities kept the cities clean. This shows a high degree of development and the complementary nature of agriculture and industry.

Land System : Land Ownership

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The texts do not mention clearly about the ownership of the land, but private possession of wealth and property by the individuals (Gāthāpatis, Vaiśyas, Sārthavāhas) indicates that the land possessed by the householders were under their full ownership having some sort of permanent right over them. As such the land could be sold or purchased freely by the people.

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The State realised taxes on the holdings through its revenue officials. Land tax was remitted or reduced at the pleasure of the king. One such example is the declaration of royal amnesty on the occasion of the birth ceremony of a newly born prince.⁴

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⁴ *Cf.*, Sikdar, J. C., *Studies in Bhagavati Sutra*, p. 271.

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Thus the system of land tenure was one of peasant proprietorship, the State having full power regarding realisation of taxes. The views of certain authors regarding State ownership of the land cannot be ruled out as the king was supreme and all land belonged to him. He could donate land to persons according to his pleasure. But the fact was that most of the villagers were free peasants and their land was, to all intents and purposes, their own, though the king claimed its ultimate ownership.¹ The system of land tenureship indicates that there was no impediment on production or productive activities of the people.

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¹ *Cf.*, Maity, S. K., *Economic Life in Northern India in the Gupta Period*, p. 33.

Cultivable Land

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The cultivable land or fields were known as ‘Khetta’ which lay around the villages (gāma). The agricultural land (Khetta) was one of the ten material possessions of man. According to Bṛhatkalpa² the ten external possessions are :—

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² *Bṛhat Kalpa Sūtram*, Vol. II, Chap. I, V. 825, p. 263.

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(i) Khetta (land), (ii) Vāstu (buildings), (iii) Dhana (gold and silver), (iv) Dhānya (foodgrains), (v) Sañcaya (collection of articles), (vi) Mitra (friends and relatives), (vii) Vāhana (conveyance), (viii) Sayana-Āsana (furniture), (ix) Dāsa-Dāsī (slaves) and (x) Kupya (utensils).

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The agricultural land was considered as the most important material possession. Such land was of two types. The first was ‘Setu’ i. e. land requiring irrigation and the second was ‘Ketu’ which got the required water through rainfall³. The mention of the word ‘Setu’ is significant. It means that the system of irrigation was prevalent at that time as well. This also tells about the developed nature of agriculture.

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³ *Cf.*, *Ibid.*, Vol. II, Chap. I, V. 826, p. 263.

Agricultural Operations

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The canonical texts make references regarding agricultural operations which consisted of the following :—

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(i) Ploughing and fencing of the fields,
(ii) Sowing the seeds and pulling up the weeds,
(iii) Irrigating the land when required,
(iv) Reaping the harvest, and
(v) Storing the grains.

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(i) Ploughing

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A regular process was followed in the field of cultivation. First of all the land was ploughed with the help of bullocks and the soil was prepared for sowing.⁴ Ploughing was an important occupation.

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⁴ *Cf.*, Sen, M., *op. cit.*, p. 193.

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Ploughing was done by the peasants themselves or by the slaves and the labour employed by them. A large number of ploughs were used by some peasants. At some places the land was ploughed with hundreds and thousands of ploughshares. Upāsakadaśānga tells us about Ānanda, a rich merchant and an agriculturist, who in order to put a check on his external possessions, limited his cultivable land to five hundred ploughs, each one ploughing one hundred acres (Niyattaṇa) of land.¹ It means that though affluent and well-off people in those days possessed vast tract of agricultural lands, yet there was a limit to that and this shows a religious and a socialistic spirit of the society. The farming must have been extensive.

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¹ *Cf.*, *Upāsakadaśāṅga Sūtram*, Chap. I, S. 19, p. 27.

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In order to provide protection to the fields from the beasts and thieves, fences (Vāḍi) were laid around them. This is substantiated by the reference occurring in Jñātādharmakathāṅga Sūtram, "....Karittā Vāḍi parikkhevaṁ kareṁti....".² This also demarcated the field of one peasant from that of the others. It was laid down that if a field was situated near a pasture ground and not protected by a fence, the herdsman was not responsible for the destruction caused to the crop.³ Fencing of the field enjoined upon the cultivators an obligation and this shows the prosperous and scientific nature of agricultural occupation.

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² *Cf.*, *Jñātādharmakathāṅga Sūtram*, Vol. II, Chap. VII, S. 5, p. 200.

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³ *Cf.*, Maity, S. K., *op. cit.*, p. 100.

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(ii) Sowing

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Sowing of seeds (Vapaṇa) was mostly done in the rainy season. Great care was taken to preserve the germination capacity of the seeds and as such these were stored in a safe place before being brought for sowing purposes. Sowing was done by hand. The broadcast method was usually followed, but in certain crops e. g. rice, ginger, etc., transplantation system was adopted wherein tiny plants when about 6" high in the nursery were transplanted in rows in the fields set for the purpose. There is mention of transplantation being done twice or thrice in Jñātādharmakathāṅga Sūtram in the narration "Te paṁca sāli akkhaye vavaṁti, duccaṁpi, taccaṁpi, ukkhaye nihae karenti...."⁴ in order to get good yield. Fields were carefully prepared for growing various kinds of crops. To help the plants grow smoothly the weeds were pulled up from the fields. Gustav Roth, a German scholar of the University of Goettingen (West Germany) in his article "The Similes of the Entrusted Five Rice-Grains and their Parallels" has appreciated the rice breeding technique, followed by Rohiṇī, the fourth daughter-in-law of Dhaṇṇa Satthavāha in order to get a bumper yield. Roth writes,

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⁴ *Jñātādharmakathāṅga Sūtram*, Vol. II, Chap. VII, S. 5, p. 200.

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“The Rohiṇī-passage (in Jñātādharmakathāṅga) also includes more interesting terms which refer to rice-breeding techniques. In Suttāgame I, p. 1007, 22-29, we read that at the beginning of the rainy season the household servants sow the five unbroken rice grains on a small well-prepared bed (....khuḍḍāgaṁ keyāraṁ su-parikammaṁ karenti ....te pañca sāli—akhaē vāvanti). Twice and three times they transplant the seedlings (doccaṁpi taccaṁpi ukkhaya nihae karenti), they enclose the field by a bund (vāḍi-parikkevaṁ karenti). The rice plants reared in this way, become deep blue (sāli jāyā kiṇhā kiṇho bhāsa), then they become endowed with leaves, round stems, with young cornfruits, shoots, fragrance, milky juice and compact cornfruit, they become mature and fully accomplished, they get spear-shaped leaves, they have green joints and sub-divided stems (taeṇaṁ te sāli pattiyā, vattiyā, gabbhiyā pasūyā, āgaya-gandhā khirāiyā, baddha-phalā, pakkā, pariyāgayā, sallaiyā, pattaiyā hariya—pavva-kaṇḍā, jāyā yāvi hotthā). Thus, the process of maturity of the rice plant is referred to.”

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The description of the art of sowing seems very scientific. The mention of transplanting being done twice or thrice in Jñātādharmakathāṅga to get good yield tells us not only about efficient agricultural practices prevalent and practised in those early days, but also about the scientific nature of cultivation.

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(iii) Irrigation

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Different systems of irrigation were in vogue in ancient India as revealed in the canonical texts. Apart from the rainfall, the water from the rivers, lakes, ponds, wells and canals were used for irrigating the fields. Bṛhat Kalpa Bhāṣya tells us that while rainfall was the main source of water supply in the Lāṭa Deśa (Western India), the fields were irrigated from rivers in Sindhu (North western India), from ponds in Draviḍa (South) and from wells in Uttarāpatha (Northern India). There is also a reference of flood water (āipurae) being utilised for the purpose.² Lands were irrigated by canals (sāṟnī pāṇiya) in Tosali region.³ As discussed earlier the fields known as ‘Setu’ were irrigated by means of well and the ‘Ketu’ depended on rainfall. The peasants irrigated their fields by turn from a common water-source (sāṟnī pāṇiya). Small ditches (Khātiyā) were dug near the fields for the purpose of holding water for irrigation.

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¹ Gustav Roth, “The Similes of the Entrusted Five-Rice-Grains and their Parallels”, *German Scholars on India*, Vol. I. pp. 237-238.

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² *Cf.*, *Bṛhat Kalpa Sūtra*, Vol. II, S. 1239, p. 383-384.

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³ *Ibid.*, p. 332.

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The frequent appearance of famines in ancient India as mentioned in the Jaina canonical literature clearly shows that a large region was vulnerable to drought where in the absence of rains there was no alternative arrangement of irrigation. The famines occurred not infrequently. It came with devastating effects. The people including the Jaina monks suffered terribly for want of food and water.

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(iv) Reaping

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When the crops e. g., paddy (sāli), wheat (godhūma), barley (yava), etc., were ready and ripe, they were reaped by the peasants with the help of a sharp sickle (dātra or asiyeṇaṁ). It was then thrashed (malita) and winnowed (pūta)¹ with a winnowing-fan (Suppa).

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¹ *Cf., Nisītha Sūtram*, Vol. I, V. 293, p. 102.

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After separating the chaff, the pure grain (paripūta) was measured or weighed (miyamāṇa).

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(v) Storing

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The harvested corn was stored with great precaution. They were kept in grannaries (Koṭṭhāgāra) made of straw, bamboo, grasses (palya), etc. on an elevated platform or on the upper storey of the houses. It was covered with the cowdung from all sides, closed (pihita) and completely sealed up with mud so that the corn did not lose its food value or the germination capacity for a number of years.² ‘Saṁvāha’ has been mentioned as a place which was situated on a mountain or at some other place of safety where the farmers used to store their grains.³ Various forms of storage have been mentioned in the texts which are known as kumbhī, karabhī, pallaga, muttolī, mukha, idura, aliṁda, ocāra or apacāri, etc.⁴

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² *Cf., Jñātādharmakathāṅga Sūtram*, Vol. II, Chap. VII, p. 206.

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³ *Cf.*, Jain, J. C., *Life in Ancient India as Depicted in Jain Canons*, p. 90.

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⁴ *Cf., Idem.*

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The system of storing cereals, pulses, oilseeds, etc., prevalent in those days preserved the germination capacity of the seeds for a period ranging from one year to seven years. The cereal seeds could be preserved for three years⁵, seeds of pulses for five years and oilseeds like linseed (alasī), mustard (sarṣapa), etc. for seven years.⁶ This again shows high degree of scientific knowledge about the various phases of agricultural occupation. It is a matter of great pride to find that the results of the modern agricultural researches agree with the knowledge of the people of ancient India in matter of seeds preservation.

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⁵ *Cf., Sthānāṅga Sūtram*, Vol. I, Chap. III, S. 23, p. 673.

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⁶ *Cf.*, Sikdar, J. C., *op. cit.*, p. 274.

Agricultural inputs

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In modern agro-economy input-output analysis has assumed a great significance. The important inputs in agricultural industry are seeds, fertilisers, implements, bullocks, water (irrigation), manpower, etc. A certain amount of inputs applied to the land results in some output and the ratio of the two in different conditions is a matter of interesting study.

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Unfortunately, the detailed records of early agricultural activities are lacking and we have no statistical information to analyse and to come to some concrete conclusion. Hence, while studying the agricultural life of ancient India we have to depend on informations available here and there in different texts and come to general conclusions.

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Among the inputs we have discussed seeds and systems of irrigation while dealing with agricultural operations. We shall now discuss fertilisers, agricultural implements, bullocks aud manpower.

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Fertiliser

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The texts do not mention clearly about the use of fertilisers in raising of crops but the harvesting of rich crops is indicative of the use of some sort of fertiliser. The mention of the use of ashes, cowdungs, leaves, etc. lead us to suppose that these articles must have been used by the peasants as manures to increase the productivity of their farms.

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Agricultural implements

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The texts mention many implements which were used in agricultural operations viz. plough, spade, sickle, grass-cutter, axe, scissors, knives, etc.

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Wooden ploughs (hala) driven by the bullocks were extensively used. The different kinds of ploughs were ‘hala’, ‘kuliya’¹, and ‘daṁtālā’².

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¹ *Cf.*, *Niśītha Sūtram*, Vol. I, V. I, p. 3.

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² *Cf.*, Ibid., V. 60, p. 31.

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Spade (Sattara—Phāvarā in Hindi) was used for digging the earth, making water-courses, throwing soil, etc.

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Sickle (asiya or dātra) was used for reaping the crop. It was sharpened and tempered (ṇavapajjaṇaenaṁ)³.

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³ *Cf.*, *Jñātādharmakathāṅga Sūtram*, Vol. II, Chap. VII, S. 6, p. 201.

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Sharp axe (tikkheṇa parasuṇa)⁴ was used for cutting the branches of trees, logs, etc.

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⁴ *Cf.*, *Arthāgama* (Bhagavati Sūtram), Vol. II, Chap. V., S. 571, pp. 1038-39.

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Grass cutting implement (kulita) has been described in Niśītha Sūtra. It was wooden instrument with iron nails (ayakīlagā) fixed at the end with an iron plate.¹

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¹ *Cf.*, *Niśītha Sūtram*, Vol. I., V. 60, p. 31.

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Scissors (pippalaga), knives (churiyā) were used for minor operations, e. g., trimming of the plants, preparation of bundles, etc.

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Bullocks

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Bullocks were used to drive the plough, lift water from the well and thrash the crops. They were also utilised for the purpose of transport, e. g. to draw the carts. They have been considered as one of the important parts of the wealth of an individual family.

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There is reference of castration of bulls and piercing of their noses for taming and yoking them so as to utilise them for agricultural operations and transport purpose.²

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² *Cf*, Sikdar, J. C., *op. cit.*, p. 285.

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There is description of two decorated handsome bullocks yoked to the cart (chariot) of Ṛṣabhadatta who goes to Lord Mahāvīra for his darśana.³

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³ *Cf.*, *Ibid.*, p. 286.

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Labour

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Manpower was needed for agricultural operations. The peasants employed various kinds of labour who assisted them in cultivation. The different classes of labour were the following :—
(i) Slaves—both males and females (dāsa-dāsī)
(ii) Hired labour or wage earners (bhayagas or kammakāras) and
(iii) Servants (sevagapurisas)⁴

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⁴ *Cf.*, Sen, M., *op. cit.* p. 203.

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*(i) Slaves*

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Slavery was a common practice at that time and both the male and female slaves (dāsas and dāsis) were employed for doing all sorts of agricultural and domestic work. The rich peasants invariably had a large number of slaves. Even the ordinary householders employed them for their domestic need and assigned various agricultural work e. g. ploughing, sowing, winnowing, thrashing, etc.

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There is mention of six kinds of slaves in the texts⁵—(i) slaves by birth (gabbha), (ii) slaves by purchase (kīya), (iii) slaves for non-payment of debts (aṇaya)⁶, (iv) slaves because of famines (dubbhiḵkha)⁷, (v) slaves by punishment for crimes (sāvarāha) and (vi) slaves as prisoners of war (ruddha). The Brāhmanic as well as the Buddhist literatures also mention about the different classes of slaves¹. The masters generally did not treat their slaves well. They were subjected to all sorts of torture and were seldom made free. Slaves could be liberated at the will of the master. The slave accepting Sanyāsa (monkhood) was generally set free by his master.²

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⁵ *Cf.*, *Niśītha Sūtram*, Vol. III, V. 3676, p. 263.

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⁶ *Cf.*, *Piṇḍa Niryukti*, V. 319, p. 60.

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⁷ *Cf.*, Jain, J. C., *op. cit.*, p. 107.

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¹ *Cf. Nārada Smṛti*, Chap. V, V. 23, p. 284.

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² *Cf., Niśītha Sutram*, Vol, III, V. 4489, p. 430.

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*(ii) Hired Labour*

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The hired labourer or wage-earner (bhayagas and kammakāras) worked in the agricultural fields in consideration of some payment, in cash or in kind. The two systems of payment of wages—time rate and piece rate—were prevalent in those days also. Four kinds of wage earners have been mentioned in the texts³—(i) labourers who were employed on daily wages. They worked only in day time. (divasa bhayae), (ii) those employed on a journey (jattā bhayae), (iii) those employed for a definite period on a stipulated wages to do any type of work (uccatta bhayae), (iv) those employed on contract basis receiving their wages after finishing the work (kavvāla bhayae). This class of labour was generally employed for doing hard manual work. e. g., digging the earth, clearing the fields, etc. Many Hindu texts of the time describe the various kinds of labour which confirm that hired labour (bhṛtakas) were engaged for agricultural operations.⁴ The ‘kammakāras’ were the agricultural labour who were employed for cultivating the soil.

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³ *Cf., Sthānāṅga Sūtram*, Vol. II, Chap. IV, S. 32, p. 562.

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⁴ *Cf., Nārada Smṛti*, Vol. V, V. 21 & 23, p. 284.

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*(iii) Servants*

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The peasants also employed a number of servants for personal work (sevagapurisas) who also carried on agricultural duties as ordered by their master. Jñātādharmakathāṅga mentions about servants who were allotted external duties (bāhirapesaṇa)⁵ e. g. removing and throwing the ashes, cowdungs, etc. Other servants did the work of thrashing, pounding, grinding, husking, etc.⁶

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⁵ *Cf., Jñātādharmakathāṅga Sūtram*, Vol. II, Chap. VII, S. 6, p. 221.

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⁶ *Cf., Ibid.*, p. 222.

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Wages

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Remuneration to labour was paid either in cash or in kind or in both. Payment in cash was preferred. The practice of paying wages in kind. e. g. in food, milk, etc. was also prevalent as mentioned in the texts.¹ The mention of payment of wages in milk depicts that the living condition of labourers was good.

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¹ *Cf.*, *Niśītha Sūtram*, Vol. III, V. 4501, p. 433.

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An analysis of the different kinds of hired labour shows that wages were paid both on the time basis and piece rate basis. Fixed payment for a fixed work ensured fast work bringing about efficiency of labour.

Agricultural output

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A wide range of agricultural produce has been mentioned in the Jaina canonical texts which shows that agriculture in those days was highly developed. Most of the foodgrains of today were known to the people of that time. The agricultural output of the period can be studied under the following heads :—

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(a) Cereals—Wheat, rice, barley, pulses, millets, etc.
(b) Beverages—Tea, coffee, cocoa, etc.
(c) Other food crops—Sugarcane, spices, oilseeds, etc.
(d) Fibre crops—Cotton, hemp, etc.

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(a) Cereals

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The Bṛhat Bhāṣya mentions seventeen varieties of grains² whereas the Niśītha Sūtram Bhāṣya refers to twenty four varieties of foodgrains (dhānya), etc. produced in those days.³ The foodgrains, etc. mentioned are as follows :—

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² *Cf.*, *Bṛhat Kalpa Sūtram*, Vol. IV, V. 3300-3304, p. 926-927.

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³ *Cf.*, *Niśītha Sūtram*, Vol. II, V. 1029-1030, p. 109.

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(i) Java (barley)
(ii) gohuma or godhūma (wheat)
(iii) vīhi (rice—common quality)
(iv) sāli (rice—fine quality)
(v) saṭṭhiya (rice—ripening in sixty days—coarse variety)
(vi) koddava (rice—inferior variety)
(vii) aṇṇā (viii) kaṁgu (millet)
(ix) rālaga
(x) tila (sesame)
(xi) mugga (pulse)
(xii) māṣa (pulse) (xiii) atasi (linseed)
(xiv) hirimaṁtha or caṇaka (gram)
(xv) tipuḍa (xvi) nipphāva (a kind of wheat) (xvii) alisiṁdarā (pea) (xviii) paṁḍara—cavalagā
(xix) ikkhu (sugarcane)
(xx) masūra (pulse)
(xxi) tuvarī (pulse) (xxii) kulattha (pulse) (xxiii) dhāṇaga (xxiv) kalā (pulse—maṭara)

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From the above list some important cereals produced and consumed during the period are described hereasunder :—

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Rice (śāli)

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Rice seems to have been the most popular food in those days. We find four main varieties of rice being produced in the fields. They were (i) śāli (fine variety, ripening in winter), (ii) vīhi (common variety ripening in autumn), (iii) saṭṭhiya (rice grown in sixty days in summer) and (iv) koddava (inferior variety). The śāli was the best variety. In the texts we find mention of four sub-varieties viz. kalamaśāli,¹ rakta-śāli and gandhaśāli². Kalamaśāli was highly relished. Gruel (tandulapeya) prepared from rice was taken by the monks at the end of a long fasting.³ The 'saṭṭhiya' variety of rice which could be grown in sixty days must be high yielding variety and of rough quality.

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¹ *Cf., Upāsakadaśāṅga Sūtram*, Chap. I, S. 31, p. 40.

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² *Cf., Bṛhat Kalpa Sūtram*, Vol. IV, Chap. II, V. 3301, p. 927.

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³ *Cf. Niśītha Sūtram*, Vol. I, V. 487, p. 162.

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Wheat (gohuma)

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It was another important foodgrain. Various food preparations were made from wheat flour. Wheat was grown in large area which is evidenced from the fact that the traders went out for trade with carts loaded with wheat.⁴

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⁴ *Cf., Ibid.*, Vol. IV, V. 5664, p. 111.

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Barley (java)

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Barley also seems to have been a common cereal. There is mention of barley meal in the Nisītha Cūrṇi.⁵ Capable of being grown on poorer soil and its productivity being greater than wheat, peasants must have been tempted to grow this cereal on less fertile lands.

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⁵ *Cf., Ibid.*, Vol. II, V. 1075, p. 117.

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Pulses

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Different varieties of pulses were grown in those days. Pulses commonly used were caṇaka (gram), mugga (mūṁga), māṣa (urada), tuvarī¹ (arahara), kalāya (maṭara), kulattha (kulathī), rāyamāṣa (rājmā), etc.

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¹ *Cf.*, *Piṇḍa Niryukti*, S. 623, p. 168.

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(b) Beverages

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Pāṇa (drink)² has been frequently mentioned in the texts, but it mentions only honey (mahu), milk (khīra), fruit-juice and wine (majja) as the popular drinks. It seems that the modern beverages like tea, coffee, cocoa, etc., which are agricultural products, were not known to the people at that time.

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² *Cf.*, *Vyākhyā Prajñapti*, Part VII, Chap. I, S. 263, p. 526.

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(c) Other Food crops

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Some of the other important food crops were sugarcane, spices and oilseeds which were grown in those days.

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Sugarcane

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Sugarcane (ikkhu or ucchu) was widely used by the people and hence it must have been an important crop of the time. Sugarcane store houses (ucchu ghara), juice extracting machine (ikkhu-jaṁta), sheds for pressing sugarcane (jaṁta-sālā) are mentioned in the texts³ which show that the crop was grown in a large area. Puṇḍravardhana was an important centre for sugarcane cultivation.⁴

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³ *Cf Niśītha Sūtram*, Vol. IV, V. 5742, p. 127.

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⁴ *Cf.*, Jain, J. C., *op. cit.*, p. 91.

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Spices

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Spices were used to make the food tasty. Various kinds of spices have been mentioned in the different texts. Jīraga (cuminseed), mariya (black-pepper), pippali (long pepper), lavaṁga (clove), elā (cardamom), addae (ginger), suṁṭhī (dry ginger), hiṁgu (asafoetida), kuthumbhari (corriander), piṇḍa haliddā (tumeric)⁵, etc. were grown and consumed by the people.

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⁵ *Cf.*, *Vyākhyā Prajñapti*, Part VI, Chap. III, S. 276, p. 547.

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Betel

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Chewing of betel leaf (taṁbola) was quite common in those days. It was not prohibited for pious Gṛhasthas.⁶ It must have been grown in a large area. Betel leaves were usually taken with five spices, viz., jāīphala (a kind of scented nut), kokkola (cinnamon), kappūra (camphor), lavaṁga (cloves) and pūgaphala (arecanut)⁷.

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⁶ *Cf.*, *Upāsakadaśāṅga Sūtram*, Chap. I, S. 38, p. 44. (Gāthāpati Ānanda renounces aromatic materials except the use of betel)

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⁷ *Cf.*, *Niśītha Sūtram*, Vol. III, p. 319.

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Oilseeds

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The Jaina canonical texts mention various kinds of oilseeds grown in that period. These are sarisava¹ or saraṣapa² (mustard), atasī (linseed), eraṇḍa (castor seeds), tila (sesamum), etc. Mustard oil and sesame oil were commonly used.

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¹ *Cf.*, Sikdar, J. C., *op. cit.*, p. 276.

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² *Cf.*, Sen, M., *op. cit.*, p. 133.

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(d) Fibre crops : Cotton and Hemp

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Different types of fibres were used for making cloth, wrapping materials, etc. The texts frequently mention kappāsa³ (cotton) and saṇa⁴ (hemp) which were grown in those days. The description of different varieties of cloths in the texts gives evidence of the production of various grades of cotton viz. fine, medium and coarse. Sāmali trees yielded a silky cotton fibre.⁵

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³ *Cf.*, *Bṛhat Kalpa Sūtram*, Vol. IV, Chap. II, V. 3663, p. 1018.

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⁴ *Cf.*, *Idem.*

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⁵ *Cf.*, *Sūtra Kṛtāṅga*, Chap. VI, S. 18, p. 101.

2. Horticulture

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The canonical texts frequently mention different horticulture products viz. fruits, vegetables and flowers which depict that horticulture was a popular pursuit of the people at that time. Gardens and parks (ārāma, ujjāṇa or nijjāṇa)⁶ were full of fruits and flowers of various kinds which besides yielding their products provided a calm and quiet place where people could enjoy the natural surroundings.

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⁶ *Cf.*, *Jñātādharmakathāṅga Sūtram*, Vol. I, Chap. I, S. 17, p. 225.

Fruits

c8.s4.t1.1

Various kinds of fruits were grown and consumed by the people in those days. The important fruits mentioned are :—
(i) Āmra or rasāla or amba (mango)
(ii) Jambu (black berry)
(iii) Kosamba, Kadalī (banana or plantain)
(iv) Dāḍima (pomegranate)
(v) Drākṣā or kākati (grapes)
(vi) Khajjurī (date)
(vii) Nālierī (cocoanut) (viii) Tāla (palm)
(ix) Tetali or cincā (tamarind)
(x) Atthiya (guava)
(xi) Phanasa (jack fruit)
(xii) Mātuluṅga (citron) (xiii) Temdeya, etc.

c8.s4.t1.2

The mango was the most popular fruit in India as it finds a very frequent mention in the canonical texts. Mango groves consisting of one thousand mango trees have been mentioned.¹ Delicious drinks, syrups, etc. were prepared from the juice of mangoes, grapes, oranges, etc. The fruits could be ripened by four methods :—

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¹ *Cf.*, *Upāsakadaśāṅga Sūtram*, Chap. VII, S. 177, p. 269.

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(i) by covering fruits with husk or straw (imdhaṇa) e. g. mangoes.
(ii) by heating process (dhūma)—fruits like temduga were subjected to this process.
(iii) by mixing fruits with ripe fruits (gaṁdha) e. g. mātuluṁga, mangoes, etc.
(iv) by natural process on trees (vaccha).²

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² *Cf.*, *Niśītha Sūtram*, Vol. III, V. 4710, p. 484.

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Fruits were also dried up for preservation. Koṭṭaka was a place for this operation.³ Besides being grown in orchards, fruits were gathered from jungles and were carried to cities for sales.

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³ *Cf.*, Jain, K. C., *op. cit.*, p. 281.

Vegetables

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Different kinds of vegetables were grown in the vegetable gardens (kaccha).⁴ The consumption of vegetables was considered essential for digesting food. This is substantiated by the reference occurring in Nisītha Cūrṇi which is as follows :—

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⁴ *Cf.*, *Idem*.

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"...vaṇṇassati kāyeṇa ya suhaṁ āhāro ṇipphajjati...."⁵ This proves that medical science was also in a developed state. The words ‘sāka’ and ‘mūla’ were used for vegetables. ‘Sāka’ generally meant leafy vegetables whereas ‘mūla’ indicated root plants e. g. onion, raddish, garlic, etc. The Jaina texts forbid the consumption of certain vegetables as it leads to killing of insects. One of such vegetables is brinjal. The texts also condemn the use of onions and garlics. Fa-Hien, the Chinese traveller, wrote that onion and garlic in those days were taken only by the Cāṇḍālas.⁶

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⁵ *Niśītha Sūtram*, Vol. III, V. 4837, p. 517.

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⁶ *Cf.* Sen, M., *op. cit.*, p. 136.

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The main vegetables grown were ālue (potato), mūlae (raddish), tuṁbi (gourd), vāiṁgaṇi or vṛntaki (brinjal), palaṁḍu (onion), lasuṇa (garlic), pālaṁka (pālaka), karela, siṁghādā or śṛngatāla (water-nuts), khīrā or vāluṁka (cucumber), etc.⁷

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⁷ *Cf.*, *Vyākhyā Prajñapti*, Part VII, Chap. III, S. 276, p. 547.

Flowers

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People were fond of flowers. The groves and gardens were maintained for recreational purpose. Various kinds of flowers e. g. navamālikā, kaṇera, mogarā, yūthikā, mallikā, vāsantī, mṛgadantikā, campaka, kunda (jasmine), śyamalatā, palāśa, bandhujīvaga have been mentioned in the texts. Among the water flowers, utpala (blue lotus), padma (lotus) nalina (water lily) are frequently mentioned which were grown and used by the people.

c8.s4.t3.2

The flowers fulfilled the aesthetic needs of the people. At the same time they had an economic importance in as much as some people depended on its trade. It is mentioned that people of Koṅkaṇa maintained themselves by selling fruits and flowers.¹ Flower garlands and bouquet of various designs were prepared and sold. Saffron (kuṁkuma or kesara) was an important flower product. It yielded a good income to the producers. The flower attracted the bees who yielded honey (mahu) of different varieties, e. g. macchiya, kuṭṭiya, bhāmara, etc.²

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¹ *Cf.*, *Bṛhat Kalpa Sūtram*, Vol. II, V. 1239, p. 383-384.

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² *Cf.*, Jain, J. C., *op. cit.*, p. 93.

3. Animal Breeding including Dairy Farming

c8.s5.1

Animal husbandry was an important occupation in those days. It appears from the texts that the economic usefulness of the domestic animals was fully realised and valued by the people. Different animals had different uses and they were utilised accordingly. The animals commonly mentioned are elephants, horses, cattle, sheep, etc.

Elephants and Horses

c8.s5.t1.1

The elephants and horses were mostly used by the kings and their warriors for fighting battles. They were also utilised for transport purposes. The tusks and bones of elephants commanded a high value. Ivory business (daṁta vāṇijja)³ was an important business of the merchants.

c8.s5.t1.2

³ *Supra*, p. 12.

Cattle rearing

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The cattle e. g. cows, bulls, bullocks, buffaloes, etc. constituted an important part of the household property on account of their economic value.⁴ The cattle were used for the following main purposes :—

c8.s5.t2.2

⁴ *Cf.*, *Upāsakadaśāṅga Sūtram*, Chap. I, S. 4, p. 9.

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(a) as draught animals,
(b) for the production of meat,
(c) for dairy farming,
(d) for hides and skins.

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(a) Draught animals

c8.s5.t2.5

Bulls and bullocks were used as draught animals. Cultivation was done by cattle-drawn ploughs. The cattle except cows were used for drawing carts and carrying loads.

c8.s5.t2.6

(b) Production of meat

c8.s5.t2.7

The Jaina canons laid stress on Ahiṁsā, and prohibited the consumption of meat (including beef), honey and wine.¹ Sthānāṅga Sūtram mentions "Pañcindiya vaha bhūyam maṁsaṁ duggandhamasui vibhacchaṁ." It means that meat is obtained by killing animals having all the five sense organs. It is bad smelling and not worth taking. Yet meat eating in those days was largely in vogue. There is mention of slaughter-houses.² Meat diet was prominent among the 'mlecchas'³ (lower castes) but even the higher castes did not object to meat-eating. As such the cattle along with goats, sheep, deer, etc. were butchered for the purpose. The teachings of Lord Mahāvīra, however had a salutary effect and the killing was reduced to some extent.

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¹ *Cf.*, *Sthānāṅga Sūtram*, Vol. I, Chap. II, S. 6, p. 253.

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² *Cf.*, Jain, K. C., *op. cit.*, p. 283.

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³ *Cf.*, *Niśītha Sūtram*, Vol. III, V. 4843, p. 518.

c8.s5.t2.11

(c) Dairy farming

c8.s5.t2.12

Dairy farming was carried on in a big way. There were large cow-sheds (gomaṁdava) where the herds of cows, bulls and calves were kept. There was abundant supply of milk (dugdha or khīra) and its four products (gorasa) viz. curd (dadhi), butter milk (udasi or maṭṭhā), butter (ṇavaṇīya or navanīta), clarified butter or ghee (ghṛta or ghaya).⁴ Milk and milk products were available in plenty at the dairy (dohaṇa-vāḍaga).⁵ The products were stored in 'khira sālā'.⁶ Many articles of daily food were prepared with the help of milk and its products. People could get highly nutritious food because of the easy and large supply of the dairy products.

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⁴ *Cf.*, Sikdar, J. C., *op. cit.*, p. 288.

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⁵ *Cf.*, *Niśītha Sūtram*, Vol. II, V. 1199, p. 145.

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⁶ *Cf*, *Ibid.*, V. 2534, p. 456.

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(d) Hides and skins

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The hides of the dead cows and buffaloes were used in leather work for making shoes, bags, etc. The slaughter houses besides supplying meat yielded hides for leather work.

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