The Coinage of the Gupta Empire and its Imitations c6: Chapter I: A Brief Outline of the History of the Imperial Gupta Dynasty
The Coinage of the Gupta Empire and its Imitations c6
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Chapter I: A Brief Outline of the History of the Imperial Gupta Dynasty
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It will be convenient to give here at the outset a brief outline of the history of the Gupta dynasty for the general reader. We shall not discuss any points of detail or controversy, but mention just such facts as are necessary to be known in order to understand the coinage of the dynasty. A book on Gupta coinage need no longer contain a long introduction dealing with the details of the history of the dynasty,¹ as there are several authoritative and easily accessible books on the subject.²
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¹ This was necessary when the *Catalogue of the Coins of the Gupta Dynasties* in the British Museum was published by Mr. Allan in 1914.
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² R. C. Majumdar and A. S. Altekar—*The Age of the Vākāṭakas and the Guptas*, reprint, 1954; H. C. Raychoudhari, *The Political History of Ancient India*, 5th. edition, 1951. etc.
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The Gupta dynasty was founded in south-east Bihar³ by Śrigupta in *c.* 260 A. D. His kingdom was a very small one, and he is never given any thing higher than a feudal title in the official records of his more distinguished successors. Śrigupta ruled from c. 260 to 280 A.D. and was too insignificant a ruler to issue any coinage. His son and successor, Ghaṭotkacha, did not succeed in attaining to the imperial status and did not issue any coinage. It will be shown in Chap. XI that the solitary gold coin, bearing the legend Ghaṭo, was issued by a later prince of the dynasty. The reign of Ghaṭotkacha may be placed from c. 280 to 300 A. D.
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³ Recently Dr. B. P. Sinha has argued that the home of the Guptas was near Ayodhya. *J. B. O. R. S.* XXXVII, p. 138.
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Ghaṭotkacha's son and successor, Chandragupta I, was the real founder of the greatness of his house. His matrimonial alliance with the Lichchhavis, a princess of whose family named Kumāradevī was his crowned queen, helped his rise to the imperial position. The Gupta and the Lichchhavi kingdoms were amalgamated as a consequence of this union and a compact block of Mithilā and Bihar was thus formed. With his resources thus increased, Chandragupta extended his sphere of influence and soon annexed Oudh and that portion of the Gangetic valley which extended from Buxar to Allahabad. When the kingdom was thus expanded to more than double its size, Chandragupta decided to assume the imperial title Mahārājādhirāja, at a formal coronation celebrated sometime in c. 320 A. D., when he seems to have started the Gupta era as well as the Gupta coinage. After nominating his son Samudragupta, born of the Lichchhavi princess Kumāradevī, as his successor, Chandragupta died in c. 330 A. D.
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The matrimonial alliance with the Lichchhavis was the most dominating political event of the reign of Chandragupta I, and it profoundly affected his coinage. He is seen to be issuing coins only in one type, where the place of honour on the obverse is shared both by him and his queen Kumāradevī; the reverse however exclusively mentions the name of the Lichchhavis. Chandragupta I is the earliest Hindu ruler, whose inscribed gold coins have come down to us.
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Samudragupta was no doubt nominated as his successor by Chandragupta I, but indications are not wanting to show that there might have been a war of succession after his death.¹ A king named Kācha flourished at about this time and may have been the cause of this war. His precise position is not possible to determine; it will be discussed later. Samudragupta was able to overcome all the troubles that arose at his succession and soon re-established his own position and then proceeded to expand the extent of his empire.
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¹ See vv. 4 and 5 of the Allahabad Pillar Inscription.
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Samudragupta was a great organiser and an ambitious conqueror. He overthrew a number of petty rulers and annexed to his empire northern U. P., the south-eastern Punjab and the territory from Delhi to Saugar; the Vindhya Pradesh and south Kośala were brought within the sphere of the imperial influence. After consolidating his position in the north, Samudragupta launched upon a spectacular expedition to South India, during the course of which his armies swept across the eastern coast right up to Kāñchī or Conjeeverum, 20 miles south of Madras. About a dozen petty kings ruling in this region formally acknowledged the suzerainty of the conqueror, and he was content to return home laden with the tributes paid by them; annexation of the conquered territory was not attempted. The view that Samudragupta returned from the south via western India through Mahārāṣṭra is now shown to be wrong; the kings of Devarāṣṭra and Eraṇḍapalla, who submitted to him, are now shown to be ruling in Kalinga on the eastern coast and not in Mahārāṣṭra in western India. The Vākāṭakas were ruling over Central Province (Madhya Pradesh) and part of Mahārāṣṭra and Samudragupta did not cross sword with them.
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Samudragupta had a long reign extending over more than 40 years; it may be presumed to have ended in *c.* 370 A. D. During this period, the imperial coinage recorded considerable progress in types, varieties and artistic excellence. Like his father, Samudragupta did not issue any coins in copper and silver, but his gold coins, which were issued in large quantity, show six different types.¹ They will be described in due course.
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According to one view Samudragupta was succeeded by his eldest son Rāmagupta, who after a short reign, had to give place to his younger brother Chandragupta II, who rescued the empire from a great calamity created by a successful Kuṣāṇa invasion. This view is however rejected by other scholars, who are not prepared to accept the historicity of Rāmagupta, as it is not supported by any epigraphical and numismatic evidence. The first school, however, points that Rāmagupta's name was omitted from the official genealogy either because he was a collateral or because his reign was a blot upon the fair name of the family. Recently some copper coins have been found in Mālwā, which clearly bear the name of Rāmagupta. It is not unlikely that he may be identical with the eldest son of Samudragupta. The whole position about Kācha and Rāmagupta is still very obscure.
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Chandragupta's accession may be placed in *c.* 375 A.D. He had a long reign extending down to a little beyond *c.* 412 A.D. He had to face a sea of troubles at the beginning of his rule. There were rebellions in Bengal and the Kuṣāṇas had to be driven out. He rose equal to the occasion. Bengal was pacified and then imperial armies pushed back the Kuṣāṇas right up to the banks of the Indus.¹ The Western Punjab, however, was not annexed to the Gupta empire, but Kuṣāṇa and Śaka chiefs were allowed to rule there as Gupta feudatories.
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¹ This information is based upon the data of the Mehrauli pillar inscription, which is generally assumed to be a record of Chandragupta II.
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Sometime after *c.* 390 A. D. Chandragupta II launched a powerful offensive against the Śaka Kshatrapas of Mālwā, Gujarat and Kathiawar. The campaign was very remarkably successful and the Śakas, who were ruling over this territory for more than 300 years, were completely and for ever wiped out from the political map of India. The rich provinces of Mālwa, Gujarat and Kathiawar were annexed to the Gupta empire and they opened a new avenue for direct maritime trade with the West.
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Prabhāvatīguptā, a daughter of Chandragupta II, was married to Vākāṭaka king Rudrasena II. She was unfortunately widowed early in life, and when her husband died, she had two minor sons. Chandragupta helped his daughter in running the Vākāṭaka administration as the regent for the heir-apparent by sending a number of experienced officers to conduct the administration.
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During the long reign of Chandragupta II the imperial coinage recorded considerable progress. Both copper and silver currencies were introduced, the latter being a close copy of the Kshatrapa prototype. The issue was probably intended for the new western provinces of the empire, which were accustomed to the currency in silver only.¹
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Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son Kumāragupta I. There is an interval of three years between the earliest date of the new emperor (96 G. E.) and the latest date of his predecessor (93 G. E.) and some scholars have argued that Govindagupta, a brother of Kumāragupta, had usurped the throne during this interval.¹ This theory, however, is supported by very slender datum and there is no epigraphical evidence to support it. Even if we suppose that Govindagupta did rule during part of this interval of three years, he has left us no coinage either in gold or in silver or in copper.
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¹ R. N. Saletore: Life in Gupta Age, pp. 29-30.
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Kumāragupta I had a long reign of about 40 years, but very few political events connected with it are known. He attempted no new conquests, and his Aśvamedha sacrifice was intended more to emphasise his imperial position than to celebrate any fresh annexations. The discovery of a hoard of his silver coins in Satara district need not show that central and southern Mahārāṣṭra was added to his empire. The hoard may have been savings of a Mahārāṣṭrian merchant trading in Gujarat, or may have constituted the honorarium of a learned Brāhmaṇa, who may have been invited to Gujarat for the performance of Vedic sacrifices.
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Kumāragupta’s reign was on the whole peaceful down to c. 450 A. D. The tranquility and prosperity of his empire is reflected in his coinage, which is noteworthy for its remarkable originality, artistic merit and the poetic excellence of its legends. He issued as many as fourteen types of gold coins and some of them like the Horseman, the Kārtikeya, the Rhinoceros-slayer and the Elephant-rider-Lion-slayer types, will rank among the best specimens of the numismatic art of ancient India.1
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Kumāragupta introduced silver currency also for the home provinces of the empire, and the type that was devised for this new currency was altogether free from the Kshatrapa influence. Silver currency of Kumāragupta is much more copious than that of any other Gupta emperor. He, however, paid no attention to copper currency and very few coins of his in this common man’s metal have come down to us.1
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Towards the end of his reign the peace of the empire was considerably disturbed. His nephew, the Vākāṭaka ruler Narendrasena, was attacked by the Nalas, but Kumāragupta could send him no military aid. Nearer home, a tribe named the Pushyamitra rebelled against the Gupta overlordship in the upper Narmadā valley. The situation for a while became quite threatening and it could be saved only by the crown-prince Skandagupta assuming the command. The Pushyamitras were subdued, but their conqueror had not the satisfaction of reporting his victory personally to his father. The old emperor had died, while the imperial armies were still engaged in overcoming the rebels.
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The struggle with the Pushyamitras put a heavy strain upon the resources of the empire. It must however be said to the credit of Kumāragupta’s administration that it did not debase its gold currency. It was however compelled to issue silver-plated coins both in the home provinces as well as in Western India.
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Kumāragupta was succeeded by his son Skandagupta. There is some evidence to suggest that Skandagupta’s succession may have been disputed by his brother (or half-brother) Purugupta. On the whole, however, it appears more probable that Purugupta succeeded Skandagupta after his death and did not oppose his accession.
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Skandagupta had suppressed the rebellion of the Pushyamitras before his accession, but fresh troubles soon cropped up. There was a serious invasion of the empire by the Hūṇas from the north-west. The imperial armies were again hard pressed in meeting the new menace; one record describes how the earth was shaken to its very foundations, when the opposing armies met in a deadly conflict. Skandagupta was able to drive back the invasion, but most probably the Eastern Punjab could not be recovered. Peace and order was however maintained in the rest of the empire during the reign of Skandagupta.
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The emperor was probably too much occupied in military affairs to pay much personal attention to his coinage. We do find a new interesting type issued by him, the King-and-the-Lakṣmī type, probably representing that goddess as offering him the crown. But otherwise he mostly confined himself to the Archer type. Only one solitary coin of his in the Chhatra type has come to light, and a coin in the Horseman type is possible to be attributed to him, though not with absolute certainty.
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Skandagupta’s silver coinage is almost as copious as that of his father, and we find him introducing two new types, the Bull type and the Altar type.
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467 A. D. is the last known date of Skandagupta and his death may be presumed to have taken place in that year or the year succeeding. His successor was most probably his brother Purugupta, who died after a very short reign of a year or two. He has left us no coinage; gold coins once attributed to him are now shown to have been the issues of Budhagupta. It is not impossible that the gold coins bearing the biruda of Prakāśāditya may have been issued by him.
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Purugupta’s short reign may have been due to his having succeeded his brother when he was quite old. But we find that his son Narasiṃhagupta Bālāditya had also a short reign of about four years, for his son Kumāragupta II is seen on the throne in the year 473. Within three years of this date we see Budhagupta, uncle of Kumāragupta II, installed upon the imperial throne and he is seen to be ruling the empire down to c. 495 A. D.
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The history of the period is shrouded in obscurity and has given rise to various theories, none of which can be regarded as proved definitely. One view is that the three successive short reigns of Purugupta, Narasiṃhagupta and Kumāra-gupta II were due to disputed succession. Budhagupta is assumed to have opposed his brother Narasiṃhagupta and the latter’s son Kumāragupta II. The internecine struggle probably cut short the reigns of both Narasiṃhagupta and Kumāra-gupta II and ended with the accession of Budhagupta after the overthrow of his nephew Kumāragupta II in c. 473 A. D. It is not unlikely that Ghaṭotkachagupta, perhaps a brother of Skandagupta, who was probably a governor of Mālwā in 435 A. D., declared independence during this struggle and issued gold coinage. The solitary coin in the St. Petersburg (Leningrad) Museum, with the legend Ghaṭo under the arm, was probably issued by him.
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This reconstruction of history, though plausible, is by no means free from difficulty. The gold coinage of Kumāragupta II is more numerous than that of any successor of Skandagupta. This circumstance renders it extremely improbable¹ that his reign should have lasted only for three or four years and should have terminated with the accession of Budhagupta in 476 A. D. We further have definite evidence to show that Kumāragupta’s son Viṣṇugupta also ascended the imperial throne and assumed the title *Mahārājādhirāja*. It therefore appears most plausible to assume that Kumāragupta’s reign did not terminate with the accession of Budhagupta in 476 A. D. Very probably some kind of understanding was arrived at between the uncle and the nephew; Budhagupta, who was the more powerful among the two, got the lion’s share of the old Gupta empire, his nephew Kumāragupta II remaining content with a small kingdom probably somewhere in southeastern Bengal, where his coins are found in large quantity.
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¹ It is however not impossible that some of these coins may be the issues of a Kumāragupta III, who appears to have ruled in *c.* 540 A. D.
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Though Budhagupta had a long reign of twenty years, his gold coins found so far are few. His silver coinage is also scanty and confined to the Madhyadeśa type. Narasiṃhagupta and Kumāragupta II have left us only gold coinage.
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History of the Gupta empire after the death of Budhagupta in *c.* 496 A. D. is but imperfectly known. It is very probable that Viṣṇugupta, the son of Kumāragupta II, succeeded him in *c.* 490 A. D. in his small dominion in the east and Bhānugupta succeeded Budhagupta at Pāṭaliputra in *c.* 496 A. D. No coinage of Bhānugupta has, however, come down to us, but several gold coins of Viṣṇugupta have been discovered. The latest Gupta emperor known from his coinage is Vainyagupta; his name was long misread as Chandragupta on his gold coins. Since a copper plate of Vainyagupta was found in southern Bengal, we may presume that he was a son and successor of Viṣṇugupta.
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There was a renewed Hūṇa onslaught towards the end of the 5th century A. D. under the leadership of Toramāṇa.
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The Hūṇas were able to overrun the Punjab and Rajputana and they even penetrated into Mālwā in *c.* 505 A. D. We find Bhānugupta and his generals fighting with them in Saugar district in 510 A. D. Bhānugupta was most probably not successful in his effort, for we find Toramāṇa's son Mihirakula holding Gwalior in his possession towards the beginning of his reign.
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The *āditya*-ending epithet of Bhānugupta is not known, and so it is difficult to state whether he was identical with Bālāditya, who is known to have succeeded in ousting the Hūṇas in *c.* 530 A. D. Most probably Bālāditya was the son and successor of Bhānugupta and completed the work started by his father. The personal name of this Bālāditya is not known; if it was Narasiṃhagupta, as in the case of the Bālāditya who was the son and successsor of Purugupta, it is not unlikely that some of the gold coins bearing the name Nara on the obverse and the *biruda* Bālāditya on the reverse, may have been issued by Bālāditya II, the overthrower of the Hūṇas.
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The elimination of the Hūṇa power from Madhyadeśa and Mālwā did not prolong the life of the Gupta empire. Yaśodharman of Mālwā, who had co-operated with Bālāditya, eventually turned against him. He invaded the Gupta empire and was successful in penetrating right up to the Brahmputrā. Yaśodharman's invasion was only a raid, but it showed the weakness of the Gupta empire and encouraged fissiparous tendencies. The Maukharis of Kanauj rebelled and founded an independent kingdom in Oudh and northern U. P. And in their home province of Magadha, the descendants of Bālāditya were ousted by a new Gupta family descended from Kṛṣṇagupta, who was probably sprung from a collateral branch. Kṛṣṇagupta, his son Harshagupta and grandson Jivitagupta, were probably loyal feudatories of Budhagupta, Bhānugupta and Bālāditya II. When the Maukharis under Īśānavarman attempted to invade and annex Magadha, we find that it was Kumāragupta III, the son of Jivitagupta, who came forward to oppose the invasion. Neither Bālāditya, the victor over the Hūṇas, nor any of his successors, is ever mentioned in the Maukharī records as the opponent of the imperial expansion of that rising dynasty. It is clear that the imperial Gupta family had died down by c. 540 A. D. and was by that time replaced by Kumāragupta of that dynasty, which for convenience sake is described as the family of the Later Guptas of Magadha.
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Jayagupta and Harigupta, who are known from some rare coins, were perhaps Gupta rulers. If such was the case, their place in the Imperial Gupta family or in the family of Kṛṣṇagupta is not known.