Indian Epigraphy c15.s1: Section IV. Hijrī and its Indian Modifications

Indian Epigraphy c15.s1

Language: English

c15.s1.t1 1. Hijrī Era — 9 parts
c15.s1.t2 2. Fasli Era — 3 parts
c15.s1.t3 3. Śuhūr, Shāhūr or Sur Era — 6 parts
c15.s1.t4 4. Vilāyatī Era — 2 parts
c15.s1.t5 5. Amlī Era — 2 parts
c15.s1.t6 6. Bengali Era — 5 parts
c15.s1.t7 7. Tripurā Era — 2 parts
c15.s1.t8 8. Magī Era — 2 parts
c15.s1.t9 9. Malla Era — 2 parts
c15.s1.t10 10. Bhāṭika Era — 18 parts
c15.s1.t11 11. Mavlūdī Era — 7 parts

Section IV. Hijrī and its Indian Modifications

1. Hijrī Era

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¹ ’Ain-i-Akbarī, translated by H. S. Jarrett, ed. J. N. Sarkar, Vol. II, pp. 23-26.; Ojha, Bhāratīya Prācīn Lipimālā, pp. 190-91.

The name of the era is derived from the Arabic root hijr, ‘to be separated, to leave’, and the reckoning is believed to have started from the time of the departure of Muḥammad, the great founder of Islām, from Mecca to Medina, viz. the evening of the 15th July 622 A. D. (Vikrama 679, Śrāvaṇa-sudi 2). The era was instituted by Khalifa Umr (634-44 A.D.) a few years after the death of Muḥammad. According to some authorities, its institution took place in the Hijrī year 17.

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The years of the Hijrī era are lunar. The months are counted from the sight of moon after the new-moon (i.e. from the evening of the 2nd tithi of the bright fortnight). The days are counted from the evening of one day to that of another. The twelve months of the Hijrī era are the following : (1) Muharram, (2) Safar, (3) Rabi’ul Avval ( i.e. Rabi’ I ), (4) Rabi’ul Akhir or Rabi’uṣ Sānī ( i.e. Rabi’ II ), (5) Jamadaul Avval (i. e. Jamada I), (6) Jamadaul Akhir or Jamadauṣ Sānī (i. e. Jamada II), (7) Rajab, (8) Shāban, (9) Ramẓān, (10) Shavval, (11) Zilqada, and (12) Zilhijja. Since the duration of the lunar month is 29 days, 31 ghaṭikās or daṇḍas 50 palas and 7 vipalas, the lunar year is shorter than the solar year by 10 days, 53 ghaṭikās or daṇḍas, 30 palas and 6 vipalas. Thus in a century of solar years, we have 103 lunar years, 24 days and 9 ghaṭikās or daṇḍas. The lunar year may happen to begin from any date in any month of the solar year without any link with the seasons.

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The Hijrī era was introduced in India by the Muslim conquerors. It is first used in the legend of the bilingual coins issued by Sultān Maḥmūd of Ghaznī from the Maḥmūdpūr (Lahore) mint in Hijrī 418 and 419 (1027 and 1028 A.D.).¹ The era is called, in the Sanskrit legend on the reverse of one of the specimens, the Tājikīya-saṁvat, i.e. the era of the Tājika people. The word Tājik, from Tāzī meaning ‘Arabic’, denotes ‘one of the Arab blood, born and brought up in Persia.’²

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¹ Thomas, *Chronicle of the Pathan Kings of Delhi*, p. 48; *JAS*, Letters, Vol. XIX, pp. 133 ff. and Plate. On one of the issues, the legend reads in the central part : *Avyaktam=eka(m*)* *Muḥammada(ḥ*)* *avatāra(ḥ*)* *nṛpati(r*)* = *Mahamūda(ḥ*)*. Around the border, the legend runs: *ayaṁ taṁkaṁ(kaḥ)* *Mahamūdapure ghaṭita(ḥ*)* *Tājikīyena saṁvatā* 419. On another specimen, the marginal legend on the reverse seems to read *avyaktīya-nāme(mni)* *ayaṁ taṁkaṁ(kaḥ)* *hata(ḥ*)* *Mahamūdapure saṁvatā* 418.

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² Steingass, *Persian-English Dictionary*, s.v. *Tāz*, *Tājik*. The Arabs are generally mentioned in Indian epigraphic records as Tājika.

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A rule for finding out the Christian equivalent of a given Hijrī year is as follows : Multiply the Hijrī year by 970203, cut off six decimals, add 622.54 and the sum will be the year of the Christian era, and decimal of the day following, in old style. Thus Hijrī 1215 × 970203 = 1178.796645, leaving 1178+622.54=1800.54. Another system is: Multiply the Hijrī year by 2.977 (the difference between 100 solar and as many lunar years); divide the product by 100, and deduct the quotient from the Hijrī year; add to the result 621.569, and the quotient will be the Christian year from the date at which the Muhammadan year begins. Thus Hijrī 1269 × 2.977 = 37778; 37778 ÷ 100 = 37.778; 1269 - 37.778 = 1231.222 + 621.569 = 1852.791 (791 or 9 months 15 days indicating the commencement of Hijrī 1269 on the 15th October). The formula of finding the Hijrī equivalent of a given Christian year is as follows : Subtract 622 from the current year; multiply the result by 1.0307; cut off four decimals, and add 46; the sum will be the year which, when this is a surplus decimal, requires the addition of 1. Thus 1852 - 622 = 1230; 1230 × 1.0307 = 1267.7610 + 46 = 1268.22; add 1 and we have the Hijrī year 1269.³

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³ Cf. Wilson’s *Glossary*, s. v. *Hijra*.

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The use of the Hijrī era is found not only in Arabic and Persian epigraphs, but sometimes also in inscriptions in Sanskrit and other Indian languages.

2. Fasli Era

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¹ Ojha, *Bhāratīya Prācīn Lipimālā*, p. 192.

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The months of the Hijrī era which was introduced in the dominions of the Muslim rulers of India were not linked with the crop seasons. As it was easy to collect revenue from the tenants during the seasons of the Rabi and Kharif crops, the Mughal emperor Akbar introduced the era called Faslī, i.e. related to *fasl* or crop, by solarising the lunar Hijrī year 971 (1563 A. D. = Vikrama 1620). Unlike the Hijrī, the years and months of the Faslī are solar (luni-solar). Thus Faslī is another solar modification of the Hijrī like the Śuhūr era.

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Originally the Faslī era was introduced in the Punjab and U. P. regions. With the gradual expansion of Akbar's empire, it was introduced in Bengal and other tracts at different later dates. It was introduced in South India during the reign of Shāh Jahān in Hijrī 1046 = 1636 A.D. This and some other local factors are reponsible for the variations of the era as prevalent in different regions. In the Punjab, U. P. and Bengal, the Faslī era starts from Pūrṇimānta Āśvina-badi 1, and 592-93 added to the years of the era gives the equivalent years of the Christian era. The later introduction of the era in the South has lead to a difference of about 2¼ years between the North and South Indian Faslī, the South Indian Faslī being 2¼ years in advance of the North Indian. One has to add 590-91 to the years of the South Indian Faslī era to get corresponding years of the Christian era. In the Marāṭhī-speaking areas, i.e. in Maharasthra, the Faslī year, like the year of the Śuhūr San, begins with the sun's entry into the Mṛgaśirā *nakṣatra* (i.e. between the 5th and 7th of June), and the months are of the Arabic calendar, viz. Muharram, etc. In the Madras region, its beginning was originally calculated from the Karkaṭa-saṅkrānti (solar Śrāvaṇa 1). From 1800 A. D., the year was calculated to begin from the 13th of July and, from 1855 A.D., from the 1st of July.

3. Śuhūr, Shāhūr or Sur Era

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¹ See Date’s *Mahārāṣṭra Śabdakośa*, s. v. Śuhūr and Suru sanna or Sursan ; Ojha, *Bhāratīya Prācin Lipimālā*, p. 91.

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This era, often used in the *firmāns* of the ’Adilshāhī kings of Bijapur, is a modification of the Hijrī and is also called the Arbi (Arabic) San and Mṛga Sāl. The name Śuhūr or Shāhūr is probably derived from the plural form of Arabic *shahr* meaning ‘a month’. It was prevalent in the Marāṭhī-speaking areas of the Deccan. *Sur* is probably a Marāṭhī modification of the Arabic name.

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It is a solarised form of the Hijrī, its years and months being solar. Like the Faslī era, it must have been introduced for linking particular months of each year with the two crop seasons for the convenience of rent collection.

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In order to get the equivalent of the Christian era, we have to add 599-600 to the year of the Śuhūr era and this shows that the solarisation of the Hijrī for the creation of this era took place on the 15th of May 1344 A.D. (Vikrama 1401, Jyaiṣṭha-sudi 2) when the sun was in the Mṛgaśirā *nakṣatra*. The name Mṛga Sāl applied to the era is due to the fact that its years begin with the sun’s entry in the said *nakṣatra*.

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The years of this era are not indicated by figures but by Arabic words which have been modified in Marāṭhī spoken in the region where it was prevalent. Thus 1=Ahad (Marāṭhī *Ahde*, *Ihde*); 2=Asana (Marāṭhī *Isanne*); 3=Salasah (Marāṭhī *Sallis*); 4=Arba; 5=Khamsa (Marāṭhī *Khammas*); 6=Sitta (Marāṭhī *Sin*); 7=Saba (Marāṭhī *Sabbā*); 8=Samaniya (Marāṭhī *Sammān*); 9=Tasaa (Marāṭhī *Tissā*); 10=Ashar; 11=Ahad Ashar; 12=Asana Ashar; 13=Salasah Ashar; 14=Arba Ashar; 20=Asharin, 30=Salasin (Marāṭhī *Sallāsin*); 40=Arabain; 50=Khamsin; 60=Sittin (Marāṭhī *Sittain*); 70=Sabin (Marāṭhī *Sabbain*); 80=Samanin (Marāṭhī *Sammānin*); 90=Tisain (Marāṭhī *Tissain*); 100=Maya (Marāṭhī *Mayā*), 200=Maatin (Marāṭhī *Mayātain*); 300=Salas Maya (Marāṭhī *Sallās Mayā*); 400=Arba Maya; 1000=Alf; 10000=Ashar Alf; etc.

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As indicated above, the era was prevalent in the Marāṭhī-speaking area and, although it is no longer in use, it still finds mention in the Marāṭhī almanacs. Nothing is known about the founder of the era. But it is possible that it was introduced by Sulṭān Muḥammad bin Tughlak (1325-51 A.D.) after his conquest of Devagiri (Daulatabad), the old capital of the Yādavas, near modern Aurangabad.

4. Vilāyatī Era

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¹ Ojha, *Bhāratīya Prācīn Lipimālā*, p. 192.

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This era may be regarded as another name of the Faslī era prevalent in Bengal and Orissa, in some parts of which countries it is still current. Its years are solar and the names of the months are Caitra, etc. The year begins from the day on which the Kanyā-saṅkrānti takes place, i.e. on the 1st of solar Kārttika. To get the equivalent year of the Christian era, we have to add 592-93 to the years of the Vilāyatī era.

5. Amlī Era

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² Loc. cit.

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This era is the same as the Vilāyatī era, the only difference being that its year begins from Bhādrapada-śudi 12 instead of the Kanyā-saṅkrānti day. The era is prevalent among the mercantile and scribal classes of Orissa.

6. Bengali Era

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³ Ibid., pp. 192-93. Cf. Sylvain Lévi, *Le Népal*, Vol. II, pp. 147, 153-54; *JBORS*, Vol. XXII, p. 172.

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This era is prevalent in Bengal and Assam. It is the same as the Faslī, the difference being that it starts not from Āśvina-badi 1 but seven months later from the Meṣa-saṅkrānti (i.e. the commencement of solar Vaiśākha). The months are solar and the day following the day of the saṅkrānti is regarded as the first day of the month. We have to add 593-94 to the years of the era in order to get the corresponding years of the Christian era.¹ It is impossible to believe that the era has been in continuous use since 593-94. If such was the case, its use would have certainly been noticed in some of the numerous pre-Mughal records of Bengal.

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¹ Some old records point to certain discrepancies. Thus two manuscripts are stated to equate Śaka 1638 (1716 A.D.)=Bengal Sāl 1124 and Śaka 1711 (1789 A.D.)= Bengal Sāl 1195 (cf. S. Mukhopādhyāy, *Prācīn Bāmlā Sāhityer Kāl-Kram*, pp. 221-22). These would suggest the difference to be 592-93 in one case and 594-95 in the other.

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We have already referred above to the existence of two other similar eras in some parts of Bengal during the late medieval period, e.g. the Balālī San and the Parganātī San, the epoch of the former falling in 1199 A.D. and that of the latter in 1202-03 or 1201-02 A.D.²

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² History of Bengal, Vol. I, pp. 235-36; above, p. 278.

7. Tripurā Era

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³ See *JAS*, Letters, Vol. XVII, pp. 79 ff.

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The era prevalent in the kingdom of Tripurā (Sanskritised from the tribal name *Ṭiprā*) is 3 years ahead of the Bengali era. Thus year 1357 of the Bengali era would be 1360 of the Tripurā era. There can be no doubt that the Tripurā era was adopted from the Bengali era. The difference of 3 years may be due to an arbitrary innovation or to the solarisation of Hijrī 1074.

8. Magī Era

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⁴ Ojha, *Bhāratīya Prācīn Lipimālā*, p. 193.

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This era is prevalent in the Chittagong area of East Pakistan, which was sometimes under the domination of the Arakanese called Mag in Bengal. The era is similar to the Bengali era, the only difference being that it starts 45 years later than the other. This difference of 45 years between the two eras may be due to an arbitrary innovation based on the supposed date of an event of the past.

9. Malla Era

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⁵ See *IHQ*, Vol. III, pp. 180-81.

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Just as the Tripurā and Magī eras are several years ahead of the Bengali era, the Malla era, which was prevalent in the State of the Malla rulers of Bishnupur in the Bankura District of West Bengal, is 101 years behind the Bengali era. There is no doubt that it is an adaptation of the Bengali era. The difference therefore may be attributed to the whims of one of the Malla rulers of Bishnupur.

10. Bhāṭika Era

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¹ See Ojha, Bhāratīya Prācīn Lipimālā, p. 178; Ep. Ind., Vol. XXX, pp. 2 ff., pp. 5 ff.; IHQ, Vol. XXXV, pp. 65 ff. 227 ff.

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The use of the Bhāṭika era is known from some medieval epigraphs of the Jaisalmer region. It is said that Bhaṭṭi or Bhaṭṭika was an ancestor of the rulers of Jaisalmer, who were therefore called Bhāṭī, and that this Bhaṭṭi or Bhaṭṭika must have founded the Bhāṭika or Bhaṭṭika era. The fact, however, that no date of the earlier centuries of the era is known renders the suggestion extremely doubtful. It seems that the era was really not of local origin and that it was called Bhāṭika owing to its adoption by the Bhāṭī rulers of Jaisalmer.

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The Jaisalmer Viṣṇu temple inscription² equates Vikrama 1494 (expired), Māgha-sudi 6, Friday, Aśvinī-nakṣatra with the Bhāṭika year 813 (current), while an inscription³ near the Mahādeva temple at the same place quotes the current Bhāṭika year 993 (Uttarāyaṇa in Mārgaśīrṣa) with Vikrama 1673 (expired) and Śaka 1538. The first date corresponds to the 31st January 1438 A.D. and the second to the 28th December 1616 A.D. According to the first, the epoch of the era falls in 624-25 A.D. and, according to the second, in 623-24 A. D. There is a clear discrepancy of one year since the inscriptions specifically mention both the Bhāṭika years as current and it cannot be suggested that one of them was expired and another current.

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² Bhandarkar's List, No. 775; Ojha, loc. cit. Ojha speaks of the shrine as the Lakṣmīnārāyaṇa temple. The Bhāṭika year has been read as 812 and 813; but the same date with the year read as Bhāṭika-saṃvat 813 is found in other two inscriptions in the Jaisalmer fort (see below).

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³ Bhandarkar's List, No. 962.

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It is very probable that the Bhāṭika era was an Indian solarised modification of the Hijrī which started in 622 A.D. and was in popular use in the Sind region to the west of Jaisalmer since the Arab conquest of that area in the eighth century A.D. The calculation seems to have been based on the fact that Vikrama 679-80=622-23 A.D. was the first year of the Hijrī and Bhāṭika eras, the year of the Hijrī being lunar and that of the Bhāṭika solar. The discrepancy of a year or two between this epoch and the epochs suggested by the dates in the inscriptions discussed above may be due to confusion.¹

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¹ Cf. ABORI, Vol. XXVII, p. 35; Ind. Ant., Vol. XXV, p. 265; Ep. Ind., Vol. XXX, p. 3. Note the difference between the Gupta and Valabhī eras as also among the various modifications of the Hijrī. Cf. the Mavlūdī era.

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The following inscriptions² containing dates in the Bhāṭika era have recently come to light :

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² See Annual Report of the Rajputana Museum for the year ending 31st March 1936; ARASI, 1935-36, p. 111; IHQ, Vol. XXXV, pp. 65 ff., see also pp. 227ff.

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(1) an inscription of Lodhrava dated Bhāṭika-saṁvat 534, Kārttika-badi 2, Monday (7th October 1157 A. D. );

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(2) an inscription on a Govardhana about 10 miles from Jaisalmer—Bhāṭika-saṁvat 539, Bhādrapada-sudi 10, Sunday (11th August 1163 A.D.);

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(3) three inscriptions on memorial pillars near Gogākī-talāī, about 5 miles from Jaisalmer—Bhāṭika-saṁvat 685, Āṣāḍha-badi 3, Thursday (26th June 1309 A.D.);

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(4) three inscriptions on memorial tablets at the foot of the Jaisalmer fort—Vikrama 1418=Bhāṭika-saṁvat 738, Mārgaśīrṣa-badi 11, Wednesday (24th November 1361 A.D.);

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(5) an inscription on a pillar near a well in the Jailsalmer fort—Vikrama 1494=Bhāṭika-saṁvat 813, Māgha-sudi 6, Friday (31st January 1438 A.D.);

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(6) an inscription on a slab built into the Lakshmīkānta temple in Jaisalmer fort—Vikrama 1494=Bhāṭika 813, Māgha-sudi 6, Friday (31st January 1438 A.D.);

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(7) an inscription engraved on a slab built into the wall of Vyāsonkī-baiṭhak in the Jaisalmer fort—Vikrama 1494=Bhāṭika-saṁvat 813, Māgha-sudi 10, Wednesday (iregular for the 5th February 1438 A.D.); and

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(8) an inscription on a pillar near Īsarlālji’s tank about a mile from Jaisalmer—Vikrama 1673=Śaka 1538=Bhāṭikasamvat 993, Māgha-sudi 5, Friday (31st January 1617 A.D.).

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These inscriptions also suggest that the epoch of the Bhāṭika era was either 624-25 A.D. or 623-24 A.D. The era was prevalent in the Jaisalmer area between the 12th and the 17th century. The Bhāṭika modification of the Hijrī seems to have become prevalent about the 12th century A.D. There is no reason to believe that it was in use from the first quarter of the 7th century A.D.

11. Mavlūdī Era

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¹ Cf. G. H. Khare, Saṃśodhakācā Mitra, pp. 101 ff.; Ind. Ant., Vol. II, pp. 112 ff.

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This era was introduced by Tipū Sulṭān of Mysore. Tipū came to the throne on the 4th May 1783 falling in Hijrī 1117, Śaka 1703, Śobhana the 37th cyclic year. He adopted the numbers of the cyclic years, but gave them names of his own. Thus the first four years of his reign were called Zakī, Azal, Jalav and Dalav instead of Śobhana (37), Krodhin (38), Viśvāvasu (39) and Parābhava (40). These names were coined by Tipū to indicate the numbers of the cyclic years according to the Abjad system,² in which numerical value was attached to each of the Arabic letters according to their order in the old Hebrew alphabet. Tipū also invented the names of the months of the years in accordance with the same system (as No. 1, No. 2, etc.) indicated by the numerical value of the first one or two letters of the names. On the expiry of the Hijrī year 1200 on the 23rd October 1786, the Sulṭān introduced the Mavlūdī era counted in luni-solar years from the birth of Muḥammad in 572 A.D. in place of the Hijrī lunar years counted from the latter's departure from Mecca to Medina in 622 A.D. Thus the Śaka year 1709 (1787-88 A.D.) = Plavaṅga (41), called Shā in Tipū's nomenclature, was regarded as the luni-solar Mavlūdī year 1215.

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² Alif=1, bey=2, jim=3, dal=4, he=5, waw=6, zey=7, hey=8, toey=9, yey=10, kaf=20, lām=30, mim=40, nun=50, sin=60, ain=70, fey=80, sad=90 qaf=100, rey=200, shin=300, tey=400, sey=500, khey=600, zal=700, zad=800, zoey=900, gain=1000.

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He also changed the numerical value of the letters of the alphabet as recognised in the Abjad system and introduced the Abtas system based on the position of the same letters in the Arabic alphabet.¹ New names of the years and months had to be coined in accordance with the new system.² The names of the year according to the Abtas system are found on Tipū's coins. Among records of Tipū's time, a Marāṭhī document in Moḍī script is stated to bear the date : Cha 14, Māhe Takī Sāl Sāhar San 1221. According to the Mavlūdī reckoning and the Abtas system, the year Sāhir (year No. 47) corresponds to the cyclic year No. 47 (Pramādin)=Śaka 1715 (1793-94 A.D.) while Takī is month No. 3 (i.e. Jyaiṣṭha).³

Linked texts (2)

Mahmudpur
Mahādēva Temple Inscription — Sanskrit