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India as Known to Panini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashtadhyayi c8.s11: Section 11. Furniture

India as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī c8.s11

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Section 11. Furniture

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The progress of civilisation brought with it certain amenities, such as furniture to make life easy and homes comfortable. Furniture was of two main classes, *viz.* *śayana*, for lying down and *āsana*, for sitting, as mentioned by Pāṇini (VI.2.151). The word *śayanāsana* corresponds to Pāli *senāsana* which signified 'furniture.'

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As examples of household furniture Pāṇini mentions *śayyā*, bed (III.3.99); *khaṭvā*, cot (II.1.126); *paryaṅka* or *palyaṅka*, couch (VIII.2.22); *āsandī*,¹ settee or royal throne (VIII.2.12); *viṣṭara*, an ordinary seat (*āsana*, VIII.3.93); and *parpa* a wheeled-chair for disabled persons (IV.4.10). One using a *parpa* was called *parpika*, evidently same as *pīṭha-sarpī* of the *Vājasaneyi Saṁhitā* (XXX.24), Manu (VIII.394) and the *Jātakas*.

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UTENSILS—Of these Pāṇini mentions (1) *pātra*, a vessel (VIII.3.46); *kumbha*, a big jar (VIII.3.46); (3) *kaṁsa*, a pot or vessel of bell-metal (cf. *Vedic Index*, I.130) which owing to its fragility attracted the attention of the Greeks as breaking, if it fell, like earthenware (cf. *Nearchus*, Frag. 7, *Strabo*, XV); (4) *kuṇḍī*, a bowl in different sizes of stone or wood (IV.¹.42; also called *amatra* by Pāṇini); (5) *sthālī*, a cooking pot (V.1.70), from which was derived the phrase *sthālībiliya*, applied to a dainty article of food; (6) *ukhā* frying-pan (IV.2.17), a Vedic term (*Vedic Index*, I.83); (7) *kalaśi*, a small pitcher or vessel (IV.3.56); (8) *kapāla*, *śarāva*, earthen pots (VI.2.29) and pots of different shapes for holding water (*udaka-pūrayitavya*, VI.3.59), all coming under the term *kaulālaka*, pottery (IV.3.118), on account of their being made by a *kulāla* or potter. Pottery has from time immemorial played an important role in the domestic economy of India, specially at communal feasts. Indian pottery with its long history reaching back to the age of Mohenjodaro reveals a surprising range of shapes, sizes and designs—worthy of illustration in a Corpus. At one end of this series stands the giant *kusūla* (VI.².102) and at the other the tiny *śarāva*, or bowl (VI.2.29).

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¹ *Āsandī* (settee) is an old Vedic word. Pāṇini uses *Āsandīvat*, which was also the name of the royal city of Janamejaya (*Vedic Index*, I.72), so called because of its 'possessing the throne.' The *Kāśikā* equates Āsandīvat with Ahisthala (VIII.1.12).

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Other household articles included the winnowing basket (*śūrpa*, V.1.26), the churning stick (*mantha*, also called *vaiśākha*, V.1.110)¹ and spits for roasting meat (*śūla*, IV.².17).

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*CONTAINERS*—Pāṇini refers to leathern containers of big and small sizes called *kutū* and *kutu-pa* respectively (V.3.89), used for storing oil and ghee (*charmamayam sneha-bhājanam*, *Kāśikā*); to *udaṅka*, oil-flasks (III.3.123), the opposite of which was *udañchana*, a big leathern bucket for lifting well-water; and to *dṛiti* (IV.3.56) and *bhastrā*, (IV.4.16). *Dṛiti*, a leather bag for holding fluids is frequently mentioned in the Vedic literature. Pāṇini derives *dārteya* to denote that which was filled in a leather bag (*tatra bhavaḥ*, IV.3.53). We learn from the *Panchaviṁśa Brāhmaṇa* that milk (*kshīra*) and liquor (*surā*) were kept in *dṛitis*.² At present it is generally used to hold water. In Pāṇini's time *dṛitis*, leather bags, were transported on the back of animals which were therefore marked out as *dṛitihari* (III.2.25). This device of transporting liquids was preferred in mountainous regions where wheeled traffic was difficult.

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*BHASTRĀ* (IV.4.16)—In the *Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa* (I.¹.².7;

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¹ *Vaiśākha* as a synonym of *mantha* still persists in the Hindi word *baisākhī* denoting the crutches of a lame person which exactly resemble an upturned churning stick.

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² *Surā-dṛitinā upavasatham dhāvayati*, *P. Br.* XIV.11.26; *Sakshīra-dṛitayo rathā bhavanti*, *P. Br.* XVI. 13.13.

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6.3.16) *bhastrā* denotes a leathern pouch. Pāṇini derives *bhastrika* in the particular sense of one who conveys with a *bhastrā* (IV.4.16). The *bhastrikas* seem to have formed a special class of carriers engaged in river-transport by means of skin bags. The use of *bhastrā* extended to the north-west where the people used its variant form as *bhastrakā*, instead of *bhastrikā* (VII.3.47).

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*Goṇī* is mentioned as a container or sack (*āvapana*) made from *goṇa* (IV.¹.42), obviously a cloth. It is unknown in the Vedic literature, but occurs in the *Brahmajāla Sutta* XV as *goṇaka*, explained as a woollen cloth made from the hair of long-haired goats. It was probably the same as *kaunakès*, one-piece loin cloth worn by the early Sumerians and the Accadians, and made of suspended loops of wool hanging from a woollen skirt (Marshall, *Indus Valley Civ.*, I.33, 342; pl. 95, fig. 10). The word seems to have travelled to India through commerce in pre-Pāṇinian times.

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We are enabled to make some idea of the use of *goṇī*, as it is still known by its old name (cf. Hindi *gaun* or *gonī*) and used to carry grain, salt, etc. on pack animals. Pāṇini knows of *goṇī* in two sizes, bigger, which was also the standard size, called *goṇī* itself, and smaller *goṇītari*. The former was naturally used to load on mules and asses and the latter on goats and sheep. The standard one also served as an article useful for barter, as shown by the *Kāśikā* on the *sūtra Id-goṇyāḥ* (I.2.50) mentioning a piece of cloth purchased for 5 or 10 *goṇis* (*pañchabhiḥ goṇībhiḥ krītaḥ paṭaḥ pañcha-goṇiḥ; daśa-goṇiḥ*).

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*VIVADHA* (IV.4.17), *VĪVADHA*¹ (VI.3.60)—This was a device to carry loads suspended from the ends of a pole by professional carriers, and is still in use. Drinking water from the village well was carried in this manner by persons called *udaka-hāra* and *udahāra* (VI.3.60, modern *kahār*). The *vīvadha* hung from their shoulders containing pitchers full of water was called *udaka-vīvadha* or *udavīvadha* (VI.3.60). Kauṭilya uses *vīvadha* in the technical sense of supply or transport (*Arth.* XII.4, p. 388; Trans. p. 417).

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¹ Both long and short forms are used by Pāṇini himself, and hence Patañjali reads the long form *vīvadha* also in *sūtra*, IV.4.17. Another equivalent of *vivadha* was *vihaṅgikā* (*bahāgī* in Hindi).

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*STORAGE*—Pāṇini refers to several forms of storage vessels in *sūtra*, VI.2.102, for example (1) *kusūla*, a large cylindrical vessel for storage of grain, made of earth and rising to more than a man’s height with a capacity to hold 15 to 20 maunds; (2) *kumbha*, a big earthen jar with a narrow mouth; (3) *kūpa*, a form of storage resembling a well and consisting of a series of earthen rings arranged one above the other; and (4) *śālā*, a masonry structure or store-room specially built for the purpose. The opening near their bottom for taking out corn was called *bila*.

Cites (7)