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India as Known to Panini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashtadhyayi c8.s12: Section 12. Conveyances

India as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī c8.s12

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Section 12. Conveyances

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The means of transport are referred to as *vahya* (III.¹.102) or *vāhana*, which was of two kinds, *viz.* vehicles for carrying load on land (as in the *sūtra Vāhanam āhitāt*, VIII.4.8.), and means of transport in water called *vāhana* or *uda-vāhana* (VI.3.58). The name of the load-bearing cart was specified according to the nature of its load (*āhita*), *e.g. ikshu-vāhaṇa*, *śara-vāhaṇa*, *darbha-vāhaṇa*. *Śakaṭa* denoted the waggon for carrying goods, with sturdy bulls called *śākaṭa* (IV.4.80) yoked to it. (Cf. *Vedic Index*, II.345). Patañjali refers to caravans of carts (*śakaṭa-sārtha*) passing along highways (III.2.115; II.120). In Buddhist literature numerous references to merchants conveying their goods and merchandise across the country, in caravans of 500 carts are met with, indicating the growing importance of wheeled traffic (*śakaṭa*) for transport of heavy goods.

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CHARIOT—*Ratha* (IV.2.10 etc.) was the more aristocratic conveyance. A collection of chariots is referred to as *rathyā* and *ratha-kaṭyā* (IV.2.50-51). The use of chariots for army was also known. Pāṇini refers to the divisions of an army (*senāṅga*, II.4.2), which according to the commentary included chariot-men and horsemen (*rathikāśvāroham*).

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Several kinds of chariots were known, each named after the draught animal yoked to it (IV.3.122). On this Patañjali mentions chariots drawn by horses (*āśvaratha*), camels (*aushṭra-ratha*) and asses (*gārdabha-ratha*; *Bhāshya*, II.318).¹ Naturally the wheels and other parts of a camel-chariot must have differed in dimension from others to suit the size of the yoked animal. The carpenter's vocabulary must have expressed this distinction by appropriate terms derived from the name of the draught-animal, and Pāṇini makes a provision in *sūtra* IV.3.122, *Patra-pūrvād-añ*. For example, a pair of wheels was labelled variously as *aśva-ratha-*, *aushṭra-ratha-* or *gārdabha-ratha-chakra* (*Pat.* II.318 and *Kāśikā*) according to the kind of chariot for which it was required.

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¹ The *Mahāniddesa* refers to *oṭṭha* and *khara yānas* and *Jāt*. VI. 355 to *assatari ratha*. cf. *Conveyances* by G. P. Majumdar, *Indian Culture*, Vol. II.277. Also *Vedic Index*, II.202, for horses, asses and mules yoked to chariots.

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Pāṇini refers to the various parts of a chariot (*rathāṅga*) under the name of *apaskara* (VI.1.149). According to a *vārttika* on IV.3.121, *rathya* denoted parts of a chariot, as wheel, axle, etc. This special term derived from *ratha* seems to have been required in the cartwright's vocabulary to distinguish the chariot-parts from those of a cart, which were neither so costly nor so nicely built.

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*Upadhi* denoted the part of a wheel between the nave and the circumference to which spokes were fitted. The cartwrights take special care in the selection of wood to make *upadhi* and hence the special word *aupadheya* (V.1.13) became current. The axle is called *aksha* (V.4.74). In *sūtra* VI.3.104 Pāṇini refers to *kāksha* in the sense of an inferior (*kutsita*) axle. The inferiority may be due to diminution in its standard length, which according to the *Śulba Sūtra* of Āpastamba was 104 *aṅgulas* (=78 inches, or 6½ ft.) (*Vedic Index* II.206). Pāṇini also refers to inferior chariots (*kad-rathas*, VI.3.102), being below the standard size. As against this, were the *parama-ratha* (superior chariots), implied in *sūtra* IV.3.121, both on the authority of Kātyāyana and Patañjali (*Bhāshya*, I.1.72, *vārt.* 16, I.186). According to the *Āpastamba Śulba Sūtra* the dimensions of a chariot of standard size were: pole = 188 *aṅgulas*, 11¾ ft; axle=104 *aṅgulas*, 6½ ft.; yoke=86 *aṅgulas*, 5 ft. 4½ inches (*Āpastamba Śulba Sūtra*, Mysore edition, p. 95; *Vedic Index*, II.203). The epithets *kad-ratha* and *parama-ratha* became current in relation to some such specification of standard size.

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*CHARIOT-UPHOLSTERY*—After fabrication, the chariots were upholstered (*Parivṛito rathaḥ*, IV.2.10) of which the *Kāśikā* mentions three varieties, *viz. vāstra*, *kāmbala* and *chārmaṇa*, i.e. mounted with cloth, blanket and leather. Chariots covered with a special woollen stuff known as *pāṇḍu-kambala*¹ were called *pāṇḍu-kambalī* (IV.2.11). According to the *Vessantara Jātaka*, *pāṇḍu-kambala* was a kind of red-coloured blanket imported from Gandhāra (*Vessantara Jātaka*, VI.500, *Indagopaka-vaṇṇābhā Gandhārā paṇḍu-kambalā*), which, as the commentary adds, were of red colour and used for the army (*Jāt. Commentary*, Vol. VI. p. 501, *Gandhāra-raṭṭhe uppannā satasahassagghanikā senāya pāruta ratta-kambalā*).

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¹ ^1 *Pāṇḍukambala* occurs in *Sasa Jātaka* (Vol. III. p. 53, *Paṇḍukambala-silāsanam*, rocky seat of Indra covered with *pāṇḍu-kambala*). Cf. also *Jātaka*, VI.515, for Vessantara's elephant covered with *pāṇḍu-kambala*, showing the wide use of this stuff in the Jātaka period.

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Leopard and tiger skins were also in use for special upholstery, the chariots so covered being called *dvaipa* and *vaiyāghra* respectively (IV.2.12). The earliest reference to *vaiyāghra* chariots used in the ceremony of royal consecration is found in the *Atharvaveda* (*Vyāghro adhi vaiyāghre vikramasva*, IV.8.4). It is interesting to note that like *pāṇḍu-kambala* the *dvaipa* and *vaiyāghra* chariots also had become popular in the epics and the *Jātakas*. A verse in the *Vessantara Jātaka* records the gift of 700 such conveyances by prince Vessantara (*Satta rathasate datvā . . . dīpe atho pi veyyagghe*, *Vessantara Jātaka*, VI.503), which the commentary explains as *dīpichamma-vyagghachamma-parikkhitte*.

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The *Mahājanaka Jātaka* refers in a song to artistically decorated *dīpa* and *veyaggha* chariots (*Jāt.* VI, pp. 48-50). It appears that chariots so upholstered were intended for royalty. Rāma mounts the *vaiyāghra* chariot on the eve of his proposed consecration as heir-apparent (*Rāmāyaṇa*, II.16.28). Among the presents brought to Yudhishṭhira by kings of the Prāchya country were included *vaiyāghra* chariots each valued at 1000 *kārshāpaṇas* (Sabhāparva, 51.33, *vaiyāghra-parivārita-ratha*, and 61.4, *sahasra-samita vaiyāghra-rāja ratha*). The scabbard of Bhīmasena is spoken of as *vaiyāghra kośa* (*Mahābhārata*, Virāṭa-parva, 38.30, 55, Poona edition).

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A chariot suited for rough use on all kinds of roads was, called *sarvapathīna* (V.².7). Among different classes of roads Kauṭilya specially mentions one called *rathapatha* being 7½ ft. wide (*Arth.* Text, II. 4., p. 54).

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RUNNING FOOTMEN—In *sūtra* VIII.³.75, Pāṇini states that the word-form *pariskanda* is current in the usage of the eastern people and of the Bharata *janapada*.¹ It implies that in the idiom of the Udīchyas it was called *parishkanda* (cerebralised form), which occurs five times in the Vrātya hymn of the *Atharvaveda*. *Pariskanda* denoted running foot-soldiers one on each side of a war-chariot (*Vedic Index*, I.497)², who are referred to as *chakra-raksha* in the Bhīshmaparva (18.16).

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¹ *Pariskandaḥ Prāchya-Bharateshu*. In taking Prāchya and Bharata separately, I follow Patañjali on *Pāṇ.* II.4.66 (I. 493).

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² In the *Atharva.* XV.2.1. *et seq.* the form is dual; but *Taittirīya Br.* III.4.1.7, has singular, *Bhumne parishkandam* (=*parichārakam*, Bhaṭṭa-Bhāskara).

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A TERM OF CART-WRIGHTS—*Sūtra* I.4.78, *Prādhvaṁ bandhane*, implies several stages in the making of carts and chariots. The idiom *prādhvaṁ-kṛitya*, ‘tying with cords,’ refers to the final phase through which each vehicle has to pass in the process of manufacture before it becomes road-worthy. The carpenter first proceeds to prepare the different parts of a chariot (*rathāṅga*) one by one, as wheel, axle, pole, yoke, etc., and then assembles them together. Patañjali says that the parts of a chariot lying singly are not fit for locomotion and that only when they are assembled as chariot they contribute to movement (*vraja*, to move).³ After the frame-work is ready, the third process is to mount it with upholstery. The fourth stage is that of binding the parts with cords to keep them tight together. This is generally done, not by the carmaker but by the buyer at his place. A cart or chariot, even though all its parts be ready, is not considered road-worthy, unless it has undergone this stage of cording (*bandhana*). Therefore the phrase *prādhvaṁ-kṛitya*, literally 'having made it road-worthy,' has the meaning of *bandhana*. The counter-example *prādhvaṁ-kṛitvā* is derived from a chariot already in use, but which gets out of order and stranded, and then subsequently repaired and put on the road.¹ According to Pāṇini *prādhva* (V.4.85) is that which is 'road-worthy' (*prādhva ratha*, *prādhva śakaṭa*).

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³ *Yathā tarhi rath-āṅgāni vihṛitāni pratyekaṁ vraji-kriyāṁ praty-*

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¹ Cf. *Kāśikā*, *prādhvaṁ kṛitvā śakaṭaṁ gataḥ*. . .The grammatical interest rotates round the *gati saṁjñā* of *prādhvaṁ* in the sense of 'fastening' and its absence in the latter case. The effect of *gati saṁjñā* is two-fold, *viz.* the compound and *lyap* suffix in *prādhvaṁ-kṛitya*.

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*asamarthāni bhavanti*, *tat-samudāyaścha rathaḥ samarthaḥ* . . . *Bhāshya*, 1.2.45; 1.220.

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