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India as Known to Panini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashtadhyayi c8.s8: Section 8. Dress and Ornaments

India as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī c8.s8

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Section 8. Dress and Ornaments

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WORDS FOR *CLOTHING*—Besides the usual *vastra* and *vasana* denoting clothing in older literature Pāṇini mentions three new post-Vedic words, *viz.* *chīra* (VI.2.127), *chela* (III.4.33) and *chīvara* (III.1.20). In the *sūtra Chele knopeḥ* (III.4.33), *chela* denotes a garment worn on the body. *Chīvara* is frequently used in Buddhist books for a monk's robe. It is conspicuous by absence in the *Brāhmaṇa* and *Āraṇyaka* literature. Its Buddhist association is strengthened by its illustration which occurs both in the *Chāndra-vṛitti* and the *Kāśikā*, *saṁchīvarayate bhikshuḥ*, the monk dons the *chīvara* or 'takes the holy robes.' We do not find the word applied to the garments of laymen, a householder or a Brahmachārin.

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The word *āchchhādana* denoted both a garment as *prāvāra* (III.3.54) and *bṛihatikā* (V.4.6), and also cloth (VI. 2.170). It is more frequently used in the *Ashṭādhyāyī* than any other word for cloth. Its later affinities are apparent from the fact that the word is not found in the *Brāhmaṇas*, but occurs several times in the Dharmasūtras (Vasisṭha, XVII.62; XVIII.33, *grāsāchchhādana*) and the *Arthaśāstra* in the sense of clothing (*Arth.* Text, I.11, p. 18).

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*KINDS OF FABRICS*—Various classes of fabrics are mentioned:

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(1) *kauśeya* (VI.3.42), silken cloth. According to Kātyāyana *kauśeya* is so called because it is produced from the cocoon, and though the silk-worm is also a similar product, the word applies only to the silken cloth.

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(2) Linen cloth (*auma* or *aumaka*, IV.3.150), made from the yarn of flax (*umā*), and hemp (*bhaṅgā*) plants.

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(3) Woollen garments (*aurṇa* or *aurṇaka*) made from wool (*ūrṇā*, IV.3.158).

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(4) Cotton (*kārpāsa āchchhādana*, a counter-example to IV.3.143). The word *karpāsī* occurs not in a *sūtra*, but in the *Gaṇa-pāṭha Bilvādi* (IV.3.136), but its reading there must be authentic, as it is the only fabric-denoting word in the *Bilvādi* group, and without it half of Pāṇini's rule IV.3.143 (*abhakshy-āchchhādanayoḥ*) would become redundant. In the chapter, IV.3.136-142, to which the rule IV.3.143 applies, *karpāsī* is the only word denoting cloth-making material.¹ The word *tūla* also occurs in Pāṇini (III.1.25, III.3.64), in a compound like *ishīkā-tūla*.

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DRESS—The dress of the times is indicated in the *sūtra Antaraṁ bahiryogopasaṁvyānayoḥ*, I.¹.36. We learn from this rule that *antara* in Pāṇini's time was used in two senses, *viz.* exterior (*bahiryoga*) and dress (*upasaṁvyāna*). According to Kātyāyana *upasaṁvyāna* denoted one of a pair of *śāṭakas*. Since there were two *śāṭakas* one serving as *uttarīya* and the other as *antarīya*, *upasaṁvyāna* denoted the one which served as *antarīya*, *viz.* that which was worn, and not that which was used as a wrapper or scarf to be thrown over the shoulders. The *Kāśikā* further explains that *upasaṁvyāna* was a kind of *paridhānīya* 'fit for wearing,' and not a *prāvaraṇīya* 'covering.' In the most early examples of Indian sculpture as shown in the Parkham Yaksha statue (Dr. Coomaraswamy, *H.I.I.A.*, Pl. III), the Dīdārganj Yakshī from Patna, made of polished Chunar stone and belonging to the Maurya period (*ibid.*, Pl. V), and the numerous Yaksha and Yakshī figures of Sanchi and Bharhut, the sole dress of both male and female figures consists practically of a pair of *śāṭakas* (*śāṭakayugam*). Both the *upasaṁvyāna* (*antara śāṭaka*, *antarīya*) and the *prāvaraṇīya* (upper scarf) were arranged gracefully in an endless variety of ways. The Greeks in the fourth century B.C. were struck with the extreme simplicity and elegance of Indian dress, consisting then as in the time of Pāṇini, of a pair of *śāṭakas*. Arrian writes: 'The dress worn by the Indians is made of cotton, as Nearchos tells us. They wear an undergarment of cotton which reaches below the knee half-way down to the ankles, and also an upper garment which they throw partly over their shoulders, and partly twist in folds round their head.' (Arrian. *Ind.* Frag. XVI). The *Ashṭādhāyī* enables us to know that the undergarment reached down to the forepart of the foot, and was therefore called *āprapadīna* (V.2.8). An invariable feature of wearing the *antarīya* or *dhoti* as seen on ancient sculptures depicting male and female figures is the tying of the girdle round the waist. The arrangement of the girdle is clearly visible on the Parkham statue, the Besnagar Yakshi and the Patna Yakshas, where it can be distinguished from the upper scarf and the lower *dhoti*. Pāṇini refers to a girdle as *nīvi*, the region of the belt being called *upanīvi* (IV.3.40).

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¹ The genuineness of the *Bilvādi* group is also proved by Kātyāyana examining in a *vārttika* the reading of *gavedhukā* which is ninth in position (II.323).

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On *sūtra*, V.1.21 Patañjali cites an illustration from which we learn that the price of one hundred *śāṭakas* or *dhotis* was one hundred (*Śatena krītaṁ śatyaṁ śāṭaka-śatam*, II.346). It will be shown in the Section on coins that when the number occurs without specifying the name of the coin, a silver *kārshāpaṇa* was usually meant. We may therefore say that in the time of Patañjali (2nd century B.C.) the selling price of an average cotton *sārī* was one silver *kārshāpaṇa*.

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In the *Sthūlādi-gaṇa* (V.4.3) there is a reference to the *gomūtrikā* cloth, which appears to have been so called from the *gomūtrikā* design woven into its texture at one end. The *gomūtrikā* pattern was known in the fourth century B.C. as mentioned in the *Arthaśāstra* in connection with the formation of battle-arrays (*Arth.* Text, X.6). We may note in this connection that the *paṭali* or front folds of the *dhoti* on the Yaksha statues aforesaid are arranged zig-zag in the form of the *gomūtrikā* motif.

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*BLANKETS* (KAMBALA)—Several kinds of blankets and woollen wrappers of different kinds were in use. Blankets produced in a standard size as marketable goods were called *paṇya-kambala* (V.2.42). Their size and weight were determined according to the measure of wool used. Such measure was called *kambalya*, equal to one hundred *palas* in weight, roughly five seers. The *kambalya* measure is derived by Pāṇini as a *saṁjñā* word (*Kambalāchcha saṁjñāyām*, V.1.3), pointing to its definite meaning. The *kambalya* seems to have been a measure of value and medium of exchange for some transactions in the barter economy of those days. Pāṇini mentions the formation *kambalyā* in *sūtra* IV.1.22, illustrated by the *Kāśikā* as *dvi-kambalyā*, *tri-kambalyā*, *i.e.* 'purchased for the price of 2 or 3 *kambalya* measures of wool' which would refer to a goat or sheep purchased for 2 or 3 *kambalya* measures of wool.

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*PRĀVĀRA*—*Prāvāra* (also *pravāra*) as a garment is referred to in the *sūtra Vṛinoter āchchhādane* (III.3.54). Kauṭilya names *prāvāraka* as a blanket made of the wool of wild animals (*mṛiga-roma*, p. 80). In the *Mahābhārata prāvāra* is described as a class of blankets for protection against cold (Vanaparva; 3.51). It seems that *prāvāra* was a wrapper made of finer quality of wool and lighter in weight than the *paṇya-kambala*.

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*BṚIHATIKĀ*—It is referred to in *sūtra Bṛihatyā āchchhādane*, V.4.6. The upper garment which was thrown on shoulders covering either one or both of them and falling down to the waist or knees seems to have been the *bṛihatikā* dress. The *Amarakosha* understands it as a kind of *prāvāra*, a big all-covering mantle. As remarked by the Greeks about the dress of the Indians: "They have a tunic of tree-linen down to the middle of their shins" (*C.H.I.*, p. 412). This long tunic may have been the *bṛihatikā* conforming to a real etymology of that word. Patañjali mentions *bṛihatikā* as a current dress (1.2.69). It seems to have been a fine wrapper 24' by 12' in size, mentioned as *bāhitikā* in the *Majjhima Nikāya* (*Sutta* 88).

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A rich kind of wrapper known as *rāṅkava* is referred to in ancient literature along with woollen fabrics.¹ Pāṇini mentions *raṅku* in *sūtra* IV.2.100, from which we get *rāṅkava* and *rāṅkavāyaṇa*. The *Kāśikā* explains *rāṅkava* as a blanket.

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We may also note the names of two other kinds of blankets known to Kātyāyana and Patañjali. In a *vārttika* on *sūtra* VII.3.45, (*Varṇakā tāntave*) Kātyāyana mentions *varṇakā* as a woven fabric, which Kauṭilya describes under the masculine form *varṇaka* as a kind of woollen blanket (*Arth.* II.11). Patañjali refers independently to *kutapa*, a Nepalese blanket or *thulma* (II.¹.69; I.406).

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ORNAMENTS AND TOILET—Pāṇini refers to cultured citizens (*pravīṇa nāgarakas*, IV.2.128), and also to the arts of personal decoration (*subhagaṅkaraṇa*, III.2.56). Decoration was applied to the different parts of the body (*Svāṅgebhyaḥ prasite*, V.2.66), such as *keśa*, which were dressed in an artistic manner by the dandy called *keśaka*. There are references to ornaments (*alaṁkāra*, IV.3.64), elegant drapery (*āchchhādana*, V.4.6), stylistic coiffure (*keśaveṣha*, IV.¹.42) and to special words indicative of the beauty of the female form, e.g. *vāmoru*, *saṁhitoru*, *śaphoru* (IV.1.70).

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In a group of phrases as *purusha-vyāghra*, *purusha-siṁha* (II.¹.56, *Upamitaṁ vyāghrādibhiḥ sāmānyāprayoge*) and *hastighna* (III.2.54), Pāṇini refers to the ideal of physical valour (*śakti*) for men.

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He also mentions some epithets indicative of social-honour, *e.g.* *sat*, *mahat*, *parama*, *uttama*, *utkṛishṭa* (II.¹.61), *vṛindāraka*, *nāga*, *kuñjara*, *pūjyamāna* (II.1.62), etc.

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¹ Sabhā Parva, 47.22, *aurṇaṁ cha rāṅkavam*.

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Whereas women enjoyed themselves with various garden sports as *śālabhañjikā* implied in the *sūtra Prāchāṁ krīḍāyām* (V.2.74), the male members skilled in the use of arms participated in jousts organised for the sake of pleasure (*praharaṇa-krīḍā*, IV.².57). Music, both vocal (*gāyana*, III.¹.147) and instrumental (*vādaka*), practised on the lute and other percussion instruments, also formed part of the usual pastime of a cultured society.

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Of ornaments (*alaṅkāras*) Pāṇini refers to *aṅgulīya*, finger-rings (IV.3.62), *karṇikā*, ear-ring¹ (IV.3.65), *lalāṭikā*, ornaments of the forehead (IV.3.65) and *graiveyaka*, torque round the neck (IV.2.96). If we look to the earliest known examples of Indian art we find these three ornaments conspicuously depicted there. The *karṇikā* is represented as the heavy ear-rings worn in cloven ears of men and women; the *graiveyaka*² as the torque, worn in addition to the flat triangular necklace on such statues as the Parkham Yaksha; and the *lalāṭikā* as the round pendant found on the forehead of the earliest female figures as the Yakshī from Dīdārganj, Patna (Bachhoffer, *Early Indian Sculpture*, Pl.9) and Sudarśanā (Pl.19), Chulakokā (Pl.20) and Sirimā *devatās* (Pl.21) from Bharhut. These works of art are no doubt removed in time from Pāṇini, but they represent the earliest specimens of classical Indian art and show an older tradition. The *Jātakas* also mention ear-rings, frontlet pieces and torques round the neck (*giveyya, Jāt.* VI.590).

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² For *graiveyakas* see also *J.U.P.H.S.*, May, 1933, p. 97, Pre-Kushāna Art of Mathura, by V. S. Agrawala.

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Pāṇini also mentions *kumbā* (III.3.105) which according to the *Vedic Index* denoted a female adornment connected with the dressing of the hair (*Vedic Index*, I,163). In one place he refers to a special style of female coiffure (*keśa-veśa*) known as *kabarī* (IV.¹.42). The word may have originated from the variegated appearance of the braid of hair interwoven with a garland of flowers.

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¹ Nearchus, Frags. 9 and 10; "And the Indians wear ear-rings of ivory." *C.H.I.*, p. 412)

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Among other requisites of personal decoration (*bhūshaṇa*, I.⁴.64,VI.¹.133; *alaṅkāra*, IV.³.65, etc.) and toilet (*subhagaṁ-karaṇa*, III.².56), we find reference to the following:

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¹ *Darśana* (V.2.6), mirror (*ādarśādi*, *Kāśikā*) which was of two kinds, (1) *yathāmukhīna* (flat) and (2) *saṁmukhīna* (convex) in which only the frontal view gave correct perspective, and which was probably made of polished metal.

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² *Añjana*, not referred to directly, but mention is made of the Trikakut mountain (V.4.147) from which a kind of valuable salve called *Traikakuda añjana* was obtained (Cf. *Atharva*, IV.9.9; *Vedic Index*, I.329). It may be identified with the Sulaiman mountains which is the home of a salve sold all over Sind and Panjab. The *Mahābhārata* refers to fair-complexioned Panjabi women painting their eyes with the *añjana* from the Trikakut mountain (Karṇaparva, 44.18). Another kind of salve, *Yāmuna añjana* was obtained in the region of the Yamunā, (Dehradun Dt.) which was known to Pāṇini as *Kālakūṭa* ('the Black Hill', IV.1.173).

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³ *Mālā* (VI.3.65), garland. One who adorned his person with garlands was called *mālabhārī* (VI.3.65; fem. *mālabhāriṇī*). Patañjali illustrates this *sūtra* by the form *utapalamāla-bhāriṇī* i.e. the girl adorned with lotus garlands (I.1.72; I.187). Pāṇini refers to *sragvī*, a garland-wearer, used as the special epithet of a *snātaka*, who beautified himself with flower garlands after completing the period of studentship during which time the use of flowers was forbidden.

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⁴ *Gandha* (*perfumes*). Pāṇini mentions several kinds of perfumes, as (1) *kisara* (IV.4.53), (2) *śalālu* (IV.4.54) in the *sūtras*, and others like *narada*, *tagar*, *guggulu* (bdellium) and *uśīra* (*Andropogon Muricatus*), in the *Kisarādi-gaṇa*. From the way he mentions these perfumes it appears that there were special shopkeepers who traded in these articles (*Tadasya paṇyam*) and who were named after them, *e.g.* a woman selling *śalālu* (an unidentified fragrant substance) was called *śālālukī* and *śalālukī*. Spikenard (*nalada*) was an old

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Indian perfume produced in the regions of the upper Indus and in Indo-Scythia and forwarded through Ujjain to Bharukachcha and thence to Egypt. 'Pliny describes the nard with its *spica*, mentioning also that both the leaves and the *spica* are of high value, and that the odour is the prime in all unguents, the price being 100 denarii for a pound.' (McCrindle, *Periplus*, p. 25).

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5. *Daṇḍa* (V.1.110). Pāṇini refers to the staff called *āshāḍha* (*pālāśa-daṇḍa*) which was used in the initiation ceremony (*upanayana*).

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6. *Asi* (IV.296), sword, also called *kauksheyaka* from its being kept in a sheath.

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7. *Upānah* (V.1.14), shoes, made of leather, manufactured according to the size of the foot (*anupadīnā*, V.29). The *Baudh. Śr. Sūtra* mentions shoes made of tiger's skin (*vaiyāghryau upānahau charmapakshau*, XVIII.16, p. 361). Pāṇini also knew of the use of *vaiyāghra* leather (IV.2.12) for upholstering purposes.

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The *Brahmajāla Sutta* contains a stock list of dress and toileting processes comprising twenty items. (G. P. Majumdar, Toilet, *Ind. Culture*, Vol. I, p. 651). This list agrees closely with the one laid down in Suśruta (*ibid.* p. 653). Of those items Pāṇini refers to mirror, collyrium, garlands, perfumes, shoes and staff. In the *Yājakādi* group (which occurs twice in the *Ashṭādhyāyī*, II.2.9 and VI.2.151), Pāṇini mentions *snāpaka* (barber), *utsādaka* (one who anoints), *udvartaka* (one who rubs the body with emollient unguents) and *parishechaka* (one who sprinkles); and again in the *Mahishyādi-gaṇa* (IV.4.48) *anulepikā* (a female for applying sandal paste after bath), *pralepikā* (a female to apply unguents before bath) and *vilepikā* (a female to apply scented oils, etc.). The *Arthaśāstra* also mentions these personal attendants in the service of the king. (Cf. also the king's toilet in the *Kalpasūtra* which mentions them, *S.B.E.*, Vol. XXII, p. 241 ff.).

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