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India as Known to Panini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashtadhyayi c9.s2: Section 4. Arts and Crafts

India as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī c9.s2

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Section 4. Arts and Crafts

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MEANING OF ŚILPA—Pāṇini mentions *śilpa* as a general word denoting both fine arts, like dance and music (III.2.55), and crafts (VI.2.62). Dancers (*nartaka*), musicians (*gāyana*) and instrumentalists (*vādaka*) are all called *śilpins* (III.1.146; IV.4.56). This meaning agrees with that in Buddhist literature where the *sippas* include the work of craftsmen and even acrobats. The *Kaushītaki Brāhmaṇa* also regards dance and song as *śilpa* (XXIX.5). The *Arthaśāstra* considers proficiency in military science as a *śilpa*, trained soldiers being referred to as *śilpavantaḥ pādātāḥ* (*Arth.* V.3, p. 248), a king's inspection of military parade as *śilpa-darśana*.

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Pāṇini refers to a worker in handicrafts as *kāri* (IV.1.152), which the *Kāśikā* explains as *kāru*, such as weavers, (*kāri-śabdaḥ kārūṇāṁ tantuvāyādīnāṁ vāchakaḥ*). *Kāri* is absent in the *Arthaśāstra*, but *kāru* is mentioned along with the *śilpins* (*kāru-śilpinaḥ*, *Arth.* II.36, p. 144). Kātyāyana uses the word *kāri* to denote an artisan (*vārttika* on IV.1.159).

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CLASSES OF ARTISANS—Pāṇini mentions the village artisans as *grāmaśilpins* (VI.2.62), *e.g.* the village carpenter (*grāma-takshā*, V.4.95), potter and barber. Patañjali says that in each village there were at least five artisans (*tatra chāvarataḥ pañchakārukī bhavati*, I.1.48; I.118), amongst whom Nāgeśa includes the potter, black-smith, carpenter (*vardhaki*), barber and washerman.

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Pāṇini mentions the skilled artisans as *rāja-śilpins* (*Rājā cha praśaṁsāyām*, VI.2.63), *e.g.* *rāja-nāpita*, *rāja-kulāla*. Perhaps these enjoyed the patronage of kings from whom they were so named. Patañjali clearly says that a carpenter engaged to work for the king did not entertain private work (*takshā rāja-karmaṇi pravartamānaḥ svaṁ karma jahāti*, *Bhāshya*, II.2.1; I. 364).

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Pāṇini condemns vile artisans as *pāpa-śilpī* (VI.2.68). The *grāma-taksha* (V.4.95) was a carpenter who went to work on daily wages to the house of his clients in the village. On the other hand, the *kauṭa-taksha* was one who worked on his own account in his own workshop (*kuṭī*) and was thus of a higher status. This distinction still obtains in rural economy (cf. Aurel Stein, *Hatim's Tales*, p. 41). The carpenter working at his own house is paid for his work a share of the agriculture produce by his customers.

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*NAMES OF ŚILPAS*—Of those devoted to the art of music Pāṇini mentions *gāthaka* (III.1.146), *gāyana*, (III.1.147), *māḍḍukika* (IV.4.56), *jhārjharika* (IV.4.56), *pāṇigha* (III.2.55), *tāḍagha* (III.2.25), and *nartaka* (III.1.145, with Kātyāyana's *vārttika*). Names of other craftsmen in Pāṇini are given below:

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(1) *KULĀLA* (IV.3.118) potter; also *kumbhakāra* (in a *gaṇa*). Pottery or earthenware made by him was called *kaulālaka*.

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(2) *TAKSHĀ* (V.4.95), carpenter. Pāṇini mentions *tanūkaraṇa* or hewing as the chief part of the carpenter's work (cf. III.1.76). Amongst his tools reference is made to *udghana* (III.3.80), the bench on which he works. The village carpenter played an important part in rural economy, the various agricultural implements mentioned above were made by him.

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(3) *DHANUSHKARA* (III.2.21), a maker of bows, which were made of the wood of *Tāla* tree (IV.3.152) and were of several sizes (cf. *maheshvāsa*, a bow of 6ft. ht., VI.2.38)

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(4) *RAJAK A* (III.1.145 as interpreted by Kātyāyana). Pāṇini refers to several dyes then known, the cloth dyed being named after the dye (*Tena raktaṁ rāgāt*, IV.2.1.). *Rāga* signified both colour and dye-stuff (VI.4.26,27). Cloth dyed with red colour was known as *lohitaka* (V.4.32); and with black colour *kālaka* (V.4.33). *Lākshā* (IV.2.2, also called *jatu*, IV. 3.138) was a popular commercial dye produced in India from very early times. Lacquer work was called *jātusha*. Madder (*manjishṭhā*, VIII.3.97), indigo (*nīlī*, IV.1.42), and orpiment (*rochanā*, IV.2.2.) were also known as dyes. A garment dyed in indigo was known as *nīlā* (IV.1.42). According to Kātyāyana *śakala* (powdered potsherds) and *kardama* (black mud from the bottom of a pool) also served as dyeing stuff, probably for the first process of bleaching of coarser fabrics, thus called *śākalika* and *kārdamika* (*Bhāshya*, IV.2.2; II.271). *Haridrā*, and *mahārajana* are mentioned by Katyāyana as dye-stuffs (IV.2.2, *vārttika*).

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(5) MINER—The miner (*khanaka*) is referred to by Kātyāyana on III.1.145. Mining revenue was called *ākarika* (cf. *Kāśikā* on IV.3.75). Pāṇini refers to seams as *prastāra* (III. 3.32), on which the *Kāśikā* cites *maṇi-prastāra*, the vein of gems. The same word occurs as *prastara* in Kauṭilya. Traders dealing in the *prastāra* minerals were called *prāstārika* (IV.4. 72).

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Amongst precious metals mention is made of gold (*hiraṇya* or *jātarūpa*, nuggets, IV.3.153; cf. also Vedic *upachāyya-priḍa*, III.1.123) and silver (*rajata*, IV.3.154). Iron (*ayas*, V.4.94), bell-metal (*kāṁsya*, IV.3.168) and tin (*trapu*, IV. 3.138) are also mentioned. Pāṇini takes *ayas* both as a genus (*jāti*) and a species (*saṁjñā*), illustrated by the *Kāśikā* as *kālāyasa* (iron) and *lohitāyasa* (copper) respectively. *Sīsa* and *loha* are mentioned in a *gaṇa* (IV.3.154).

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GEMS—*Lohitaka* (ruby) and *sasyaka* (emerald) are mentioned (V.4.30; V.2.68) as gems (*maṇi*). Both are referred to in the Arthaśāstra (II.11, p. 77), the latter in the *Kalpasūtra* as a precious gem (*sāsaga*, III.13). The mines of *vaidūrya* (cat's eye) were in the mount *Vālavāya*, but the gem was cut in *Vidūra* (*Bhāshya*, IV.3.84; II.313) which gave it its name. *Vālavāya* mountain is cited on *sūtra* VI.2.77 in the *Kāśikā* as an old example.

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(6) WEAVER. The word *tantuvāya* is implied in the *sūtra*, *Śilpini chākṛiñaḥ* (VI.2.76). The place where the weaver plied his loom is referred to as *āvāya* (*āvayanti asmin*, III.3. 122), the loom as *tantra* (V.2.70), and the shuttle as *pravāṇi* (V.4.160; *tantuvāya-śalākā*, *Kāśikā*). The process of weaving comprised stretching the warp and then weaving threads across it with a shuttle (cf. *Bhāshya*, *āstīrṇaṁ tantram, protaṁ tantram*, I.338). Pāṇini refers to a piece of cloth or blanket fresh from the loom as *tantraka* (*Tantrād-achirāpahṛite*, V.2.70), meaning a new (*navaka*) unbleached piece; and also *nishpravāṇi*, ‘separated from the shuttle as a mark of the weaving being completed’ (V.4.160, *apanīta-śalākaḥ samāptavānaḥ, Kāśikā*).

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Pāṇini refers to cloth and garments as *āchchhādana*. Patañjali names *Kāśika* as the famous cloth woven in Banaras; *Mādhyamika* as woven in Madhyamikā or Chittor; and *śāṭakas* woven in Mathurā (*Bhāshya*, V.3.55; II.413; I.19).

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(7) *BLANKET-MAKERS* (*kambala-kāraka*, cf. Vālmīki, II.83.14). Woollen goods were called *aurṇa* and *aurṇaka* (IV.3.158). Pāṇini mentions several kinds of blankets, *viz.*, (1) *prāvāra* (III;3.54), (2) *pāṇḍu-kambala* (IV.2.11), and (3) *paṇyakambala* (VI.2.42; to which Kātyāyana adds *varṇaka* (VII.3.45; cf. Kauṭilya, II.11, p. 80), and the *Kāśikā rāṅkava* (IV.2.100, a counter-example to the *sūtra*). *Paṇyakambala* (VI. 2.42) was a blanket of commercial variety of standard length and breath, being woven with a fixed measure of wool called *kambalya* by Pāṇini (IV.1.22, *Kambalāch-cha saṁjñāyām*), equal to 100 *palas* or 5 seers in weight (*Kāśikā*). *Prāvāra* was a special variety of light woollen covering woven on the loom (cf. *tantraka prāvāra*, V.2.70).

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PĀṆḌUKAMBALA—This blanket was used for the mounting of chariots, which were called *pāṇḍukambalī* after it (IV.2. 11). The *Kāśikā* explains *pāṇḍukambala* as a high class coloured rug used for royal seats (*rājāstaraṇasya varṇakambalasya vāchakaḥ*). The Jātakas mention it as the stuff for covering the throne of Indra (II.188; III.53; IV.8), and the back of a royal elephant (*Vessantara Jātaka*, VI.490), and also add that it was of a bright red colour woven in Gandhāra (*Indagopakavaṇṇābhā Gandhārā paṁḍukambalā*, Ves. Jāt., VI.500). Gandhāra, the home of wool in Vedic times, continued later on as a centre of wool-weaving industry. The *pāṁḍukambala* may be identified with the blankets still woven in the Swat valley, which have beautiful borders of scarlet colour.

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Sir Aurel Stein during his tours of the Upper Swat valley found blanket weaving as an ancient craft there: 'One of the crafts is represented by those heavy and gaily but tastefully coloured woollen blankets that the North-West of India knows as '*Swātī Kambals*' or rugs. They are all brought from Churrai and are mostly made by the womenfolk in the side valley of Chihil-dara which descends to that place from the high snowy range towards Kāna and Dubér on the east. To a lesser extent they are woven also in other side valleys of Torwal. That this local industry is as ancient as the Darad race that retains its hold there is proved by a passage of *Mahāvāṇija-Jātaka* which the great French Indologist M. Sylvain Lévi, quotes in his comments on that curious Buddhist Sanskrit text published by him under the title of 'Le catalogue géographique des Yakṣa dans la Mahāmāyūrī.' The Jātaka passage referring to commodities of great value mentions also 'the fabric of Kāśi' or Benares, and *the kambala of Uḍḍiyāna*, *Kāsikāni cha vatthāni Uḍḍiyāne cha kambale* (IV.352). There can be no doubt about M. Sylvain Lévi rightly recognizing *Uḍḍiyāna*, the true ancient name of Swat, in that of the locality here mentined ... Indian literature can scarcely contain any earlier testimony to the antiquity of a still flourishing local industry than this Jātaka passage. Unfortunately though the ancient skill in weaving and the use of traditional patterns still survive, the introduction of aniline dyes has here, as elsewhere in the East, brought about a sad and rapid decline in the harmonious blending of colours. Rugs produced with the fine old vegetable dyes, such as were still obtainable at Peshawar some thirty years ago, could now no longer be found for me even in the remote plied his loom is referred to as *āvāya* (*āvayanti asmin*, III.3.122), the loom as *tantra* (V.2.70), and the shuttle as *pravāṇi* (V.4.160; *tantuvāya-śalākā*, *Kāśikā*). The process of weaving comprised stretching the warp and then weaving threads across it with a shuttle (cf. *Bhāshya*, *āstīrṇaṁ tantram, protaṁ tantram*, I.338). Pāṇini refers to a piece of cloth or blanket fresh from the loom as *tantraka* (*Tantrād-achirāpahṛite*, V.2.70), meaning a new (*navaka*) unbleached piece; and also *nishpravāṇi*, 'separated from the shuttle as a mark of the weaving being completed' (V.4.160, *apanīta-śalākaḥ samāpta-vānaḥ*, *Kāśikā*).

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Pāṇini refers to cloth and garments as *āchchhādana*. Patañjali names *Kāśika* as the famous cloth woven in Banaras; *Mādhyamika* as woven in Madhyamikā or Chittor; and *śāṭakas* woven in Mathurā (*Bhāshya*, V.3.55; II.413; I.19).

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(7) *BLANKET-MAKERS* (*kambala-kāraka*, cf. Vālmīki, II.83.14). Woollen goods were called *aurṇa* and *aurṇaka* (IV.3.158). Pāṇini mentions several kinds of blankets, *viz.*, (1) *prāvāra* (III;3.54), (2) *pāṇḍu-kambala* (IV.2.11), and (3) *paṇyakambala* (VI.2.42; to which Kātyāyana adds *varṇaka* (VII.3.45; cf. Kauṭilya, II.11, p. 80), and the *Kāśikā rāṅkava* (IV.2.100, a counter-example to the *sūtra*). *Paṇyakambala* (VI.2.42) was a blanket of commercial variety of standard length and breath, being woven with a fixed measure of wool called *kambalya* by Pāṇini (IV.1.22, *Kambalāch-cha saṁjñāyām*), equal to 100 *palas* or 5 seers in weight (*Kāśikā*). *Prāvāra* was a special variety of light woollen covering woven on the loom (cf. *tantraka prāvāra*, V.2.70).

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PĀṆḌUKAMBALA—This blanket was used for the mounting of chariots, which were called *pāṇḍukambalī* after it (IV.2.11). The *Kāśikā* explains *pāṇḍukambala* as a high class coloured rug used for royal seats (*rājāstaraṇasya varṇakambalasya vāchakaḥ*). The Jātakas mention it as the stuff for covering the throne of Indra (II.188; III.53; IV.8), and the back of a royal elephant (*Vessantara Jātaka*, VI.490), and also add that it was of a bright red colour woven in Gandhāra (*Indagopakavaṇṇābhā Gandhārā paṇḍukambalā*, Ves. Jāt., VI.500). Gandhāra, the home of wool in Vedic times, continued later on as a centre of wool-weaving industry. The *pāṇḍukambala* may be identified with the blankets still woven in the Swat valley, which have beautiful borders of scarlet colour.

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Sir Aurel Stein during his tours of the Upper Swat valley found blanket weaving as an ancient craft there: 'One of the crafts is represented by those heavy and gaily but tastefully coloured woollen blankets that the North-West of India knows as '*Swātī Kambals*' or rugs. They are all brought from Churrai and are mostly made by the womenfolk in the side valley of Chihil-dara which descends to that place from the high snowy range towards Kāna and Dubér on the east. To a lesser extent they are woven also in other side valleys of Torwal. That this local industry is as ancient as the Darad race that retains its hold there is proved by a passage of *Mahāvāṇija-Jātaka* which the great French Indologist M. Sylvain Lévi, quotes in his comments on that curious Buddhist Sanskrit text published by him under the title of 'Le catalogue géographique des Yakṣa dans la Mahāmāyūrī.' The Jātaka passage referring to commodities of great value mentions also 'the fabric of Kāśi' or Benares, and the *kambala* of *Uḍḍiyāna*, *Kāsikāni cha vatthāni Uḍḍiyāne cha kambale* (IV.352). There can be no doubt about M. Sylvain Lévi rightly recognizing *Uḍḍiyāna*, the true ancient name of Swat, in that of the locality here mentined ... Indian literature can scarcely contain any earlier testimony to the antiquity of a still flourishing local industry than this Jātaka passage. Unfortunately though the ancient skill in weaving and the use of traditional patterns still survive, the introduction of aniline dyes has here, as elsewhere in the East, brought about a sad and rapid decline in the harmonious blending of colours. Rugs produced with the fine old vegetable dyes, such as were still obtainable at Peshawar some thirty years ago, could now no longer be found for me even in the remote tract where this manufacture has had its home for so many centuries.’ (Sir Aurel Stein, *An Archl. Tour in Upper Swat and Adjacent Hill Tracts*, A.S.M., No. 42, p. 63). In my visit to Peshawar in 1940 I also purchased a Swati blanket with brilliant red has to deal with three kinds of orders. Firstly, new gold or silver in the shape of bar or ingot is brought to him to make ornaments. Secondly, old ornaments are brought in order to be melted and shaped into new forms. In these two cases he subjects gold to repeated heating and expands it by beating, for which the expression is *nistapati suvarṇam*. In the third case old ornaments are brought to him in order to be repolished or brightened by heating to look like new ones. For this the ornament is heated only once (*anāsevane*) and either rubbed or immersed in a solution to be made brighter. This operation was expressed by the cerebralised form *nishṭapati* (*suvarṇam suvarṇakāraḥ*).

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Pāṇini also mentions *ākarshika*, one skilled (*kuśala*) in testing gold on the touch-stone (*ākarsha*, V.2.64). The term *ākarshika* (IV.4.9) was also applied to a person going round with a touch-stone and testing gold (*ākarsha iti suvarṇa-parīkshārtho nikashopalaḥ*, *Kāśikā*).

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(11) *LIFTERS*—For scaffolding and lifting a large number of intricate knots and binding devices were being used. Pāṇini refers to them as *bandhas* (*Saṁjñāyām*, III.4.42, read with *Adhikaraṇe bandhaḥ*, III.4.41), on which the *Kāśikā* cites some old terms: (1) *krauñcha-bandha*, 'heron-knot, (2) *mayūrikā-bandha*, 'peafowl-knot', (3) *aṭṭālikā-bandha* 'tower-knot' (*bandha-viśeshāṇāṁ nāmadheyāni*). The *Arthaśāstra* adds *vṛiśchika-bandha*, 'scorpion-knot' (*Arth.* IV.8, p. 221).

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*SKILLED AND UNSKILLED LABOUR*—Pāṇini refers to unskilled labourers engaged in hard manual work as *karma-kara* (III.2.22), and their wages as *bhṛiti* (*karmaṇi bhṛitau*, III.2.22). He has a special expression for the employment of hired labour, *viz*., *karmakarān upanayate* (I.3.36).

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Skilled workmen were called *śilpins* and their wages *vetana* (*śilpino nāma syābhūtyartham eve pravartante, vetanaṁ cha lapsyāmahe*, *Bhāshya*, III.1.26.14.; II.36). Pāṇini mentions a wage-earner as *vaitanika*, 'earning livelihood by means of wages (*Vetanādibhyo jīvati*, IV.4.12). In the *Arthaśāstra*, *vetana* includes both wages paid to artisans (*Arth*. II.23, p. 114) and salaries paid to government servants (*ibid*, V.3, p. 248).

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*WAGES*—Both agricultural labour and skilled artisans worked to earn their livelihood (*jīvikārtha*, VI.2.73) through either wages, or as food received. The system of receiving a fixed payment in return or stipulated services rendered was called *parikrayaṇa* (I.4.44, *niyatakālaṁ vetanādinā svīkaraṇam*, *Kāśikā*), the employer *parikretā* and the man employed *parikrīta*.

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A hired workman was named after (1) the period for which he was engaged, e.g. *māsika* (V.1.80, *Tam-adhīshṭo bhṛito bhūto bhāvī*), and (2) the amount of wages fixed to be paid, e.g., *pañchaka* (V.1.56). A month was the unit of time for calculating wages, as seen in the examples to *sūtra* V. 1.80, *viz.*, *karmakaraḥ māsikaḥ māsaṁ bhṛitaḥ*. This is also testified to by Kātyāyana's *vārttika* on V.4.116 (*māsād bhṛiti-pratyaya-pūrvapadāt-ṭhajvidhiḥ*) read along with *sūtra* V.1.56.

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In his comments on the above *vārttika* Patañjali hints at the scale of monthly wages of labourers in his time, e.g. *pañchaka-māsikaḥ*, *shaṭka-māsikaḥ daśaka-māsikaḥ*, i.e., a workman receiving five, six or ten (silver *kārshāpaṇas*) per month. Again, he mentions a labourer working for one *pādika* coin (one-fourth of a *kārshāpaṇa*) a day, *i.e.*, seven and a half *kārshpaṇas* per month (*karmakarāḥ kurvanti pādikam ahar-lapsyāmhe*, *Bhāshya*, I.3.72; I.293). Kauṭilya directs that a *paṇa* and a quarter per month be paid to agricultural labour supplemented with food according to work done (*Arth.* II.24, p. 118). He states that wages in cash were convertible into kind at the rate of 60 *paṇas* per *āḍhaka* (*Arth.* V.3, p. 249). In Patañjali's time also food with clothing was given to *dāsas* and *karmakaras* (*yadetad-dāsa-karmakaram . . . . . bhaktaṁ cha chelaṁ cha lapsyāmhe*, *Bhāshya*, II.36). Pāṇini mentions workmen receiving daily food as *bhākta* or *bhāktika* (IV.4.68). The Jātakas also refer to wages in the form of food, such as *yavāgū* and *bhakta*.

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