Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East (Vol. I: Champa; Vol. II: Suvarnadvipa) v2: Volume 2
Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East (Vol. I: Champā; Vol. II: Suvarṇadvīpa) v2
- Language
- English
Contents
- v2.c10 Front matter — 53 parts
- v2.c11 Table of Contents — 54 parts
- v2.c12 Additions and Corrections — 10 parts
- v2.c13 Book I. The Dawn of Hindu Colonisation — 467 parts
- v2.c14 Book IV — 11 parts
- v2.c15 Table of Contents — 19 parts
- v2.c16 Preface — 9 parts
- v2.c17 Abbreviations — 4 parts
- v2.c18 Additions and Corrections — 16 parts
- v2.c19 List of Plates — 4 parts
- v2.c20 Book V. Culture and Civilisation in Suvarnadvipa — 13 parts
- v2.c21 Book VI. Art in Suvarnadvipa — 16 parts
- v2.c22 Index — 499 parts
Volume 2
Front matter
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But the Church did not merely provide books; it also provided the means of their dissemination. The monastic scriptoria, where monks labored in silence to copy the sacred texts, were the precursors of the printing press. And when the press finally arrived, it was the Church that first harnessed its power, using it to spread the word of God to the corners of the earth. The Gutenberg Bible, the first major book printed in Europe, was a testament to the Church's commitment to the written word.
v2.c10.2
Yet, even as the Church championed the spread of knowledge, it also sought to control it. The *Index Librorum Prohibitorum*, or List of Prohibited Books, was a tool used by the Church to suppress ideas it deemed dangerous or heretical. This tension between the desire to educate and the need to control would define the Church's relationship with literature for centuries to come.
v2.c10.3
It is a complex history, one that is marked by both enlightenment and suppression. But it is a history that cannot be ignored, for it is the history of the very foundation of Western civilization. The Church, in its role as the guardian of knowledge, has shaped the way we think, the way we write, and the way we understand the world around us.
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THE BOOK WAS DRENCHED
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the *Gesta Romanorum*, the *Legenda Aurea* of Jacobus de Voragine, and the *Speculum Historiale* of Vincent of Beauvais. These were the books that fed the imagination of the Middle Ages, and they were the books that the Church, in its wisdom, provided for the instruction and edification of the faithful.
v2.c10.6
But the Church did not merely provide books; it also provided the means of their dissemination. The monastic scriptoria, where monks labored in silence to copy the sacred texts, were the precursors of the printing press. And when the press finally arrived, it was the Church that first harnessed its power, using it to spread the word of God to the corners of the earth. The Gutenberg Bible, the first major book printed in Europe, was a testament to the Church's commitment to the written word.
v2.c10.7
Yet, even as the Church championed the spread of knowledge, it also sought to control it. The *Index Librorum Prohibitorum*, or List of Prohibited Books, was a tool used by the Church to suppress ideas it deemed dangerous or heretical. This tension between the desire to educate and the need to control would define the Church's relationship with literature for centuries to come.
v2.c10.8
It is a complex history, one that is marked by both enlightenment and suppression. But it is a history that cannot be ignored, for it is the history of the very foundation of Western civilization. The Church, in its role as the guardian of knowledge, has shaped the way we think, the way we write, and the way we understand the world around us.
v2.c10.9
the *Gesta Romanorum*, the *Legenda Aurea* of Jacobus de Voragine, and the *Speculum Historiale* of Vincent of Beauvais. These were the books that fed the imagination of the Middle Ages, and they were the books that the Church, in its wisdom, provided for the instruction and edification of the faithful.
v2.c10.10
But the Church did not merely provide books; it also provided the means of their dissemination. The monastic scriptoria, where monks labored in silence to copy the sacred texts, were the precursors of the printing press. And when the press finally arrived, it was the Church that first harnessed its power, using it to spread the word of God to the corners of the earth. The Gutenberg Bible, the first major book printed in Europe, was a testament to the Church's commitment to the written word.
v2.c10.11
Yet, even as the Church championed the spread of knowledge, it also sought to control it. The *Index Librorum Prohibitorum*, or List of Prohibited Books, was a tool used by the Church to suppress ideas it deemed dangerous or heretical. This tension between the desire to educate and the need to control would define the Church's relationship with literature for centuries to come.
v2.c10.12
It is a complex history, one that is marked by both enlightenment and suppression. But it is a history that cannot be ignored, for it is the history of the very foundation of Western civilization. The Church, in its role as the guardian of knowledge, has shaped the way we think, the way we write, and the way we understand the world around us.
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IN THE FAR EAST VOL. II. SUVARNADVIPA PART I—Political History.
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BY Dr. R. C. Majumdar, M. A., Ph. D., Professor, Dacca University, Author of *Corporate Life in Ancient India*, *Outline of Ancient Indian History and Civilisation*, *Gurjara-Pratīhāras*, *Early History of Bengal*, *The Arab Invasion of India*, etc.
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DACCA
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Published by Asoke Kumar Majumdar, Ramna, Dacca.
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All Rights Reserved 1937
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To be had of the following book-sellers :
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1. Chuckervertty Chatterji & Co. 15, College Square, Calcutta.
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2. Book Company 4/4A, College Square, Calcutta.
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3. Punjab Sanskrit Book Depot. Saidmitha Street, Lahore.
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4. Greater India Society 21, Badur Bagan Row, Calcutta.
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5. Asutosh Library 5, College Square, Calcutta, or Patuatuly, Dacca (Bengal).
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PRINTER TRAILOKYA CHANDRA SUR ASUTOSH PRESS, DACCA
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To
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The Dutch Savants
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whose labours have unfolded
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a new and glorious chapter
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of the
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History of Ancient Culture and Civilisation
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of India
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this volume is dedicated
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in token of
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the respect, admiration, and gratitude
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of the author.
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the *Gesta Romanorum*, the *Legenda Aurea* of Jacobus de Voragine, and the *Speculum Historiale* of Vincent of Beauvais. These were the books that fed the imagination of the Middle Ages, and they were the books that the Church, in its wisdom, provided for the instruction and edification of the faithful.
v2.c10.37
But the Church did not merely provide books; it also provided the means of their dissemination. The monastic scriptoria, where monks labored in silence to copy the sacred texts, were the precursors of the printing press. And when the press finally arrived, it was the Church that first harnessed its power, using it to spread the word of God to the corners of the earth. The Gutenberg Bible, the first major book printed in Europe, was a testament to the Church's commitment to the written word.
v2.c10.38
Yet, even as the Church championed the spread of knowledge, it also sought to control it. The *Index Librorum Prohibitorum*, or List of Prohibited Books, was a tool used by the Church to suppress ideas it deemed dangerous or heretical. This tension between the desire to educate and the need to control would define the Church's relationship with literature for centuries to come.
v2.c10.39
It is a complex history, one that is marked by both enlightenment and suppression. But it is a history that cannot be ignored, for it is the history of the very foundation of Western civilization. The Church, in its role as the guardian of knowledge, has shaped the way we think, the way we write, and the way we understand the world around us.
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The first volume of *Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East*, dealing with the colony of Champā, was published in 1927. Various causes have delayed the publication of the second volume. One of them is a change in the planning of the different volumes. Originally I had intended to deal with the history of Kāmboja (Cambodia) in the second volume. As the wonderful monuments of this kingdom were to constitute an important part of the volume, I paid a visit to Cambodia in order to obtain a first-hand knowledge of them. There, in my conversation with the Archæological authorities, I came to learn for the first time that many novel theories were being advanced regarding the age and chronological sequence of the monuments of Angkor Thom. I was advised to put off the publication of my book until these had been fully explored. Acting upon this advice I took up the history of Malayasia which was to have formed the third volume. My knowledge of Dutch being very poor at the time, I had to spend a long time in mastering the contents of relevant books and Journals which are mostly written in that language. Hence it has taken me nearly nine years to prepare and bring this volume before the public. The interval between the first and the second volume has further been prolonged by several urgent pre-occupations.
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It is needless to dilate on the difficulty of working on the subject in India, without any possible help or advice from any competent authority, and without any adequate library. It would be hardly an exaggeration to say that the small collection of books on the subject, which I have patiently acquired for Dacca University during the last seven years, is the best in India, but it is still very far from being adequate or satisfactory. The study of the Indian Colonisation in the Far East is still at its very infancy in this country. The Greater India Society and its Journal are notable recent
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enterprises, but the establishment of a Central Institute with facilities for the study of the subject is still a great desideratum. At the time when I took up the task of writing a series of studies on Indian Colonisation, the Society had not yet come into existence, and there was no book, big or small, on the subject in English language. As regards Java, the remark still holds good, save for a small pamphlet published by the Society, and a book on Indo-Javanese literature, published by one of my pupils after the first draft of this book was ready. I state these facts, not with the motive of claiming any special credit, but with a view to craving the indulgence of the readers for the many shortcomings which will be found in this pioneer work.
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When the book was completed, it proved too bulky for one volume, and hence I thought it advisable to divide it into two parts. The first part, now published, deals with the political history and the system of administration. The second part, now in press, deals with law, society, art, religion, literature, and the economic condition of Suvarṇadvīpa.
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I have experienced considerable difficulty in the spelling of proper names. As regards the Javanese names of persons and places, I have followed the Dutch spelling, substituting *j*, *ch*, and *u*, respectively, for *dj*, *tj*, and *oe*. I have also used *y* and *v* respectively for *j* and *w*, except where these occur at the beginning of a word. The modern Javanese personal names are spelt exactly as in Dutch. As regards the Chinese names, I have followed the English, French, and Dutch spellings, according to the source from which I derived my knowledge of them.
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Originally I intended to insert in this volume a complete collection of Javanese inscriptions on the lines followed in Volume I. But while this volume was in progress, my pupil Mr. Himansu Bhusan Sarkar, M. A., a research-scholar working under me, took up this work, and has now practically completed it. I hope his ‘Collection of Javanese Inscriptions’
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PREFACÉ.
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will shortly be published, and hence I do not think it necessary to add a third part dealing with the Javanese inscriptions.
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As at present planned, the Second Part of this volume, referred to above, will be published before the end of 1937. The Third Volume, dealing with Kāmboja (Cambodia and Siam), will be published in two separate parts, one containing the history, and the other the collection of inscriptions. I hope these will be out before the end of 1939. Volume IV, forming the sixth book of the series, and containing a general review of Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East, will, I hope, be published by 1941.
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The task of writing these volumes has been a painful and laborious one, particularly as I have to work, for the most part, in a remote Mofussil town, under heavy pressure of administrative and other duties. I can only crave the indulgence of my generous readers for the many errors which must necessarily have crept into this book. My sole excuse for the choice of this difficult undertaking is the general apathy and ignorance in this country about this important branch of study. If I succeed in removing them even to a small extent, I shall consider my labours amply rewarded.
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Ramna, Dacca. The 7th of December, 1936. } R. C. MAJUMDAR the *Gesta Romanorum*, the *Legenda Aurea* of Jacobus de Voragine, and the *Speculum Historiale* of Vincent of Beauvais. These were the books that fed the imagination of the Middle Ages, and they were the books that the Church, in its wisdom, provided for the instruction and edification of the faithful.
v2.c10.51
But the Church did not merely provide books; it also provided the means of their dissemination. The monastic scriptoria, where monks labored in silence to copy the sacred texts, were the precursors of the printing press. And when the press finally arrived, it was the Church that first harnessed its power, using it to spread the word of God to the corners of the earth. The Gutenberg Bible, the first major book printed in Europe, was a testament to the Church's commitment to the written word.
v2.c10.52
Yet, even as the Church championed the spread of knowledge, it also sought to control it. The *Index Librorum Prohibitorum*, or List of Prohibited Books, was a tool used by the Church to suppress ideas it deemed dangerous or heretical. This tension between the desire to educate and the need to control would define the Church's relationship with literature for centuries to come.
v2.c10.53
It is a complex history, one that is marked by both enlightenment and suppression. But it is a history that cannot be ignored, for it is the history of the very foundation of Western civilization. The Church, in its role as the guardian of knowledge, has shaped the way we think, the way we write, and the way we understand the world around us.
Table of Contents
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| | | | | Page |
| Introduction | ... | ... | ... | i |
| Abbreviations | ... | ... | ... | xi |
| Additions and Corrections | ... | ... | xvii |
| Maps 1. Malayasie | ... | } | facing p. 1. | |
| 2. Central and Eastern Java | | | | |
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Book I. The Dawn of Hindu Colonisation.
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| Chapter | | | | |
| I. | The Land | ... | ... | ... | 1 |
| II. | The People | ... | ... | ... | 9 |
| III. | Pre-Hindu Civilisation in Malayasie | ... | ... | 26 |
| IV. | Suvarṇadvīpa | ... | ... | ... | 37 |
| V. | Early Hindu Colonisation in Malay Peninsula | ... | 65 | |
| VI. | Early Hindu Colonisation in Java | ... | 91 | |
| VII. | Early Hindu Colonisation in Sumatra | .. | 116 | |
| VIII. | Early Hindu Colonisation in Borneo | ... | 125 | |
| IX. | Early Hindu Colonisation in Bali | ... | 132 | |
| X. | Hindu Civilisation in Suvarṇadvīpa up to the | | | |
| | end of the Seventh Century A.D. | ... | 138 | |
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Book II. The Sailendra Empire.
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| I. | The Śailendra Empire ( up to the end of the | | | |
| | Tenth Century A.D.) | ... | ... | 149 |
| II. | The Struggle between the Śailendras and the | | | |
| | Colas | ... | ... | ... | 167 |
| III. | Decline and Fall of the Śailendra Empire | ... | 191 | |
| | Appendix | ... | ... | ... | 204 |
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Book III. Rise and fall of the Indo-Javanese Empire.
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| Chapter | | | Page |
| I. | The Kingdom of Matarām | ... | 229 |
| II. | Rise of Eastern Java | ... | 255 |
| III. | The Kingdom of Kaḍiri | ... | 276 |
| IV. | The Dynasty of Singhasāri | ... | 292 |
| V. | The Foundation of Majapahit | ... | 308 |
| VI. | The Javanese Empire | ... | 319 |
| VII. | Downfall of the Empire | ... | 339 |
| VIII. | Suṇḍa | ... | 356 |
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Book IV. Downfall of Hindu Kingdoms in Suvarnadvipa.
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| I. | End of Hindu Rule in Sumatra | ... | 363 |
| II. | End of Hindu Rule in Malay Peninsula | ... | 378 |
| III. | End of Hindu Rule in Java | ... | 401 |
| IV. | End of Hindu Rule in Borneo | ... | 412 |
| V. | The Bali Island | ... | 419 |
| VI. | Political theory and public administration in Java | 429 |
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I propose to deal in this volume with the Hindu colonisation in Malay Peninsula and the Malay Archipelago. For this entire region, now known as Malayasia, I have used the name Suvarṇadvīpa. My authority for the use of this Indian name in this wide sense is set forth in Chapter IV.
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In this volume I have followed the same plan as was adopted in the case of the earlier volume on Champā. I have tried to bring together such information as we possess of the political history of the different regions constituting Suvarṇadvīpa, and have also dealt with the various aspects of civilisation of their people, *viz.*, religion, literature, law and administration, social and economic conditions, and art. I have not discussed such general themes as the nature of Indian civilisation, the influence of the Pallavas or of South India on the civilisation of Sumatra and Java, the origin of art and alphabet of these regions, and similar other questions which are pertinent to the subject. These will be discussed in a subsequent volume.
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Although Suvarṇadvīpa is a mere geographical expression and a congeries of states, it came to be on two occasions, at least, almost a political entity. First, under the Śailendra kings from the end of the eighth to the beginning of the eleventh century A.D., and, secondly, in the palmy days of the Empire of Majapahit. Even in other periods, there has almost always been a close political relationship, be it friendly or hostile, between its constituent parts, such as we do not meet with between any of them and the outside world. Even now the predominance of the Malay-speaking people all over the area serves as a bond of unity, which is also artificially maintained to a large extent by common subjection to the Dutch. These considerations would be a further justification of the choice of Suvarṇadvīpa as a historical unit.
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Our knowledge regarding the Hindu colonies in the various small islands which dot the Pacific is very meagre, and this volume primarily deals with the Indian colonies settled in the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Bali, and Borneo. The sources of information on which the accounts are based will be found in detail in the body of the book, but it may be convenient to give a general idea of them at the very outset.
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The sources may be broadly divided into two classes, indigenous and foreign. Among indigenous sources, again, the two most important sub-divisions are (1) archæological, and (2) literary.
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The archæological evidence consists mainly of inscriptions and monuments, as coins play but little part in unfolding the history of these countries. As regards inscriptions and monuments, Java offers the richest field, and those in the other regions are far inferior both in quality and quantity.
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The Sanskrit inscriptions of Java were studied by Kern, and may now be conveniently consulted in his collected works (Kern—V. G.). The Kavi inscriptions have been collected in two works by Cohen Stuart (K. O.) and Dr. Brandes (O. J. O.). Other inscriptions have been noticed or edited in the publications of the Dutch Archæological Department, particularly in O. V.
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The monuments of Java are principally described in three series of archæological publications, viz., (1) Rapporten (2) O. V. and (3) Arch. Ond.
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The last named series really consists of three monumental works on Caṇḍi Jago, Caṇḍi Singasari, and Barabuḍur. While one volume is devoted to each of the first two, that on Barabuḍur consists of five big volumes. Two of these contain only plates, and of the three volumes of texts, two give the archæological, and one, the architectural description of the great monument. It may be noted that the two volumes on archæological description have been translated into English.
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As regards the island of Bali, we have a collection of inscriptions in Epigraphia Balica, Vol. I, by P. V. Stein Callenfells. The results of more recent archæological investigations are given by Stutterheim in ‘Oudheden Van Bali’.
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The monuments of Sumatra and Borneo, which are in Dutch possession, have been described in O. V. For those of Malay Peninsula we have got a preliminary account by M. Lajonquierre in B. C. A. I., 1909 and 1912.
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As regards the literary sources of history, there are two works in Java which may claim the highest rank:
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The first is Nāgara-Kṛtāgama, a poem written during the reign of Hayam Wuruk, by Prapañca, who held the high office of the Superintendent of the Buddhist Church in the court of that king. It was composed in 1365 A.D., and, although primarily concerned with the career of the king, gives other historical informations of high value. It has been translated by Kern (V. G., Vols. VII, VIII) and re-published by Krom.
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The second is a prose work called Pararaton. It is a sort of historical chronicle beginning with the life of Ken Angrok, and continuing the history of Java down to the end of the Hindu rule. It gives dates for most of the events, but these have not always proved to be correct. The book has no doubt a genuine historical background, but the incidents mentioned in it cannot always be regarded as historical without further corroboration. The book was originally edited and translated by Brandes (Par.), and a revised edition has been published by Krom.
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There are other modern historical works in Java and Bali, called Kidung, Babads, and Sajara which have preserved traditions regarding their ancient history. These have been referred to in detail in the chapter on Literature. Similar works exist in Malay Peninsula, e.g., Sajarah Malayu.
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Besides historical works, Java and Bali are rich in literature of all kinds to which a detailed reference will be found in the chapter on Literature.
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A very large part of this literature still exists in manuscripts alone, but a few important texts have been ably edited, some with a Dutch translation. There are very learned and comprehensive catalogues of Javanese manuscripts by Vreede, Brandes, and Juynboll. Among the published texts may be mentioned, Rāmāyaṇa, Mahābhārata (portions only), Bhāratayuddha, Arjunavivāha, Kuñjarakarṇa, Vṛttasañcaya, Bhomakāvya, Calon Arang, Tantri Kāmandaka, Megāntaka, Dreman, Lingga Peta, Nitisāra, and various Kidung works, in addition to several religious texts and one law-book. The former include Sang hyang Kamahāyāṇikan, a Mahāyānist text, and Agastya Parva, Brahmāṇḍa Purāṇa, and Tantu Panggelaran, all works of the nature of Purāṇa, containing theology, cosmogony and mythology. The law-book is Kuṭāra-mānava, edited with notes and translation by Jonker. A fuller account of these will be found in the chapters on Literature and Religion.
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The foreign sources may be subdivided into two classes, the eastern and the western. To the former category belong the Chinese, and to the latter, the Indian, Greek, Latin, and Arabic texts. The Indian, Greek, and Latin sources contain stray references to Malayasia and its constituent parts, and occasionally, as in the case of Ptolemy’s Geography and Marco Polo’s accounts, some valuable geographical information. The Arab texts, consisting principally of travellers’ accounts, are also very valuable for a knowledge of the trade and commercial geography of the whole region. But these western sources do not offer much material for reconstructing the history of Malayasia. For this we have to turn to the Chinese texts which contain very valuable data for the political and cultural history of the entire region.
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The Chinese possessed special opportunities for obtaining first-hand informations about the different regions of Malayasia, as these had diplomatic and trade relations with China. The envoys from these lands to the imperial court, and the
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accounts of the Chinese ambassadors who visited them, must have furnished excellent materials to the official Chroniclers who incorporated accounts of these foreign lands in the histories of the Imperial dynasties. A number of Chinese travellers also visited these far-off lands and recorded short accounts of the countries visited by them. The traders from these lands also imparted valuable information to Chinese officials. Thus the Chinese annals possess a store of information about Malayasia, which in quality and quantity far exceed, in importance, what we know from other foreign sources. In view of this, and as frequent references have been made to these Chinese sources in the text, we give here a short account of the Chinese texts on which we have principally relied.
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First, we have the famous Dynastic Histories. As is wellknown, there are twenty-four official Histories which deal with the history of China from the earliest time up to the end of the Ming dynasty (1643 A.D.). The first book, Che-ki, deals with the history of the country from the earliest time up to 122 B. C. The other books deal separately with the history of every dynasty which has since reigned in China. The history of each dynasty was written after its downfall with the help of the Government archives. It contains accounts of foreign countries "which have always been drawn up from the materials at hand, and may therefore be considered to refer to the time when the dynasty still existed, even if the time of their compilation and publication falls considerably later¹".
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¹ Groeneveldt—Notes, p. VII.
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The following is a list of the Dynastic Histories, principally referred to in this book. The date, given within brackets, refers to the period covered by each.
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1. History of the First Sung Dynasty (420-478 A. D.)
2. History of the Liang Dynasty (502-556 A. D.)
3. Old History of the T'ang Dynasty (618-906 A. D.)
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4. New History of the T'ang Dynasty (618-906 A. D.)
5. History of the Sung Dynasty (960-1279 A. D.)
6. History of the Yüan (Mongol) Dynasty (1206-1367 A.D.)
7. History of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1643 A. D.)
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Among the non-official accounts, those of Fa-hien and I-tsing (Record, Memoire) belong respectively to the fifth and seventh centuries A. D. After a long interval we come across regular accounts from the twelfth century onwards. These are enumerated below with brief notes.
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1. Ling-wai-tai-ta, by Chou kü-fei, Assistant Sub-Prefect in Kui-lin, the capital of Kuang-si. It was composed in 1178 A. D.
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2. Chu-fan-chï by Chau Ju-kua, Inspector of Foreign Trade in Fu-kien. The date of this work has been discussed on p. 193.
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The author had special facilities for obtaining information on the subjects treated by him from the foreign sailors and traders who frequented his port. Though he has relied on Ling-wai-tai-ta for several sections of his work, those dealing with San-fo-tsi and its subordinate states (which alone are mainly used in this book) seem to be based exclusively on the information gathered by him from Chinese and foreign traders¹.
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¹ Chau Ju-kua, pp. 22, 36.
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3. Tao-i Chih-lio or "Description of the Barbarians of the Isles" by Wang Ta-yüan with the cognomen of Huan-Chang. He visited, for purposes of trade, a considerable number of foreign localities during the period 1341-1367 and recorded what he had seen in this work. It is a personal and, consequently, trustworthy record.
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There are two dates in the work from which we may conclude that the author was already travelling in 1330, and that he probably put the last touches to his work after the summer of 1349.
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4-5. Ying-yai Sheng-lan by Ma Huan and Hsing-Cha Sheng-lan by Fei Hsin. Both Ma Huan and Fei Hsin accompanied the famous eunuch Cheng Ho in some of his voyages. These voyages were undertaken at the command of the Emperor with a view to exploring foreign lands for commercial purposes and demonstrating to them the might and prestige of the Chinese Empire¹. Some idea of these voyages may be obtained from the fact that in one of them Cheng Ho is said to have taken forty-eight vessels and 27,000 Imperial troops with him. Cheng Ho made altogether seven voyages between 1405 and 1433 A.D., and visited thirty-six (or thirty-seven) countries, in Malayasia, India, Arabia, and Africa.
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¹ For full discussion on this point cf. T'oung Pao. 1934, pp. 303 ff.
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Both Ma Huan and Fei Hsin must have gathered materials for their work from the voyages they undertook. Ma Huan was attached to the suite of Cheng Ho as "Interpreter of foreign languages and writing to the mission." Fei Hsin was 'presumably a secretary or clerk'. Both of them had thus splendid opportunities of gaining first-hand knowledge about these foreign lands, and this invests their chronicles with a special importance.
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The original text of Ma Huan was revised by Chang Sheng, and Rockhill has made a confusion between the original and the revised text. The whole matter has, however, been clearly set forth by Pelliot.
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Rockhill assigned the first publication of Ma Huan's work to a date between 1425 and 1432 A. D. Pelliot is, however, of opinion that the first edition of the work really appeared in 1416, the date given in the preface to the work, soon after Ma Huan's first voyages in 1413-15 A. D.
v2.c11.47
The work was evidently enlarged after the two subsequent visits in 1421-2 and 1431-3, and completed about 1433. But the book probably appeared in its final form only in 1451 A.D.²
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² Cf. T'oung Pao, 1933, pp. 236 ff.
v2.c11.49
It is not necessary to refer in detail to the other Chinese works to which occasional reference has been made in the following pages.
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Excepting the Indian texts, it has not been possible for me to consult the other sources in original. Fortunately, reliable translations by able and competent scholars are available for most of them.
v2.c11.51
The Greek and Latin texts have been translated by Cœdès ( Cœdes-Textes ), and the Arab Texts by Ferrand ( Ferrand-Textes ), both into French. For the Chinese sources the following deserve special mention.
I. Translation
v2.c11.s1.1
1. Translation of Fa-hien’s account by Legge.
v2.c11.s1.2
2. Translation of I-tsing’s works by Takakusu and Chavannes ( I-tsing-Record, I-tsing-Memoire ).
v2.c11.s1.3
3. Translation of Chau Ju-kua’s work by Hirth and Rockhill ( Chau Ju-kua ).
II. Translation of Extracts
v2.c11.s2.1
4. W. P. Groeneveldt—Notes on the Malay Archipelago and Malacca ( Batavia 1877 ).
v2.c11.s2.2
[ Supplementary Jottings—T’oung Pao, Ser. I, Vol. VII, pp. 113 ff. ].
v2.c11.s2.3
5. W. W. Rockhill—Notes on the relations and trade of China with the Eastern Archipelago and the coasts of the Indian ocean during the Fourteenth Century. T’oung Pao, Serie II, Vol. XVI ( 1915 ), pp. 61 ff., 236 ff., 374 ff., 435 ff., 604 ff.
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⁶ P. Pelliot—Deux Itineraires de Chine en Inde à la fin du VIIIe siècle ( B.E.F.E.O., Vol. IV, pp. 132-413 )
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⁷ Schlegel—Geographical Notes. T’oung Pao, Ser. I, Vol. IX. ( pp. 177 ff, 191 ff, 273 ff, 365 ff ) ; Vol. X ( pp. 33 ff, 155 ff, 247 ff, 459 ff ) ; Ser. II, Vol. II ( pp. 107 ff, 167 ff, 329 ff. )
III. Critical Discussion
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8. J. J. L. Duyvendak—Ma Huan re-examined (Verhand. der. Kon. Ak. van Wetensch., Afd. Letterkunde, N. R., d. XXXII, no 3, Amsterdam, 1933.)
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9. P. Pelliot—Les Grands Voyages Maritimes Chinois au Debut du XVe siècle (T'oung Pao, Vol. XXX, 1933, pp. 236-452 ; Vol. XXI, pp. 274 ff.)
v2.c11.s3.3
[ This is by way of review of the preceding book. ]
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Before leaving this subject we must also mention the works of Ferrand who has collected all the sources of information about Śrī-Vijaya and Malayu-Malakka in two articles in Journal Asiatique (J.A. II, XX ; J.A. II, XI-XII ).
v2.c11.s3.5
Of the modern historical works dealing with the subject, those by Raffles, Fruin-Mees, With, and Veth have all been cast into shade by Krom's 'Hindoe-Javaansche Geschiedenis' which is bound to remain the standard work on the political history of Java for many years to come. Krom's other work, Inleiding tot de Hindoe-Javaansche Kunst, is equally valuable for the history of Javanese art. It is with pleasure and gratitude that I recall the fact that these two books formed the foundation of my study of Javanese history, and I have freely utilised them in the following pages. The second edition of the first named work reached my hands after the first draft of this book was composed. Although I have utilised the new edition in the revision of my book, references given are mostly to the first edition.
v2.c11.s3.6
For the religious history of Java the works of Goris and Pigeaud (Tantu), and the numerous articles by various scholars, have been of the greatest assistance to me as they are sure to prove to others.
v2.c11.s3.7
As regards Literature, the Catalogues of Manuscripts (Cat. I, II, III ), and the works by Berg (specially Hoofdlijnen, Mid. Jav. Trad, and Inleiding), Pandji Roman by Rassers, and several articles, notably the one by Berg in B. K. I., Vol. 71 (pp. 556-578 ), have been most useful to me. Not being acquainted with the Kavi language, I had to derive my knowledge of Javanese literature mainly from these and the few translations of texts that have been published so far.
v2.c11.s3.8
Of the secondary sources for the history and civilisation of Malaysia, by far the most important are the learned articles contributed to T. B. G. and B. K. I, the organs of the two famous institutions that have done yeoman's work in rescuing from oblivion the glorious past of Java and the neighbouring islands. These articles touch upon every aspect of the subject and are of inestimable value to anyone who seeks to study the history of Indonesia.
v2.c11.s3.9
It will be seen from the above that our data regarding the history of the different regions is very unequal. While we possess, in an abundant degree, evidences, both literary and archaeological, for the history and civilisation of Java, these are very meagre when we come, for example, to Borneo. Between these two extremes we may place, in order of adequacy of historical materials, Bali, Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra.
v2.c11.s3.10
It would be wrong, however, to imagine that the degree of importance, which should be attached to the different regions, is in any way proportionate to the extant evidences regarding them. The absence of evidence available to us may be quite accidental. The archaeological evidence is mostly perishable, save in the case of massive monuments such as we find in Java. As to the Chinese evidence, the Chroniclers could only record events when there was any intercourse with one of these states. A state would come in and go out of their history according as it sent any embassy to China (or vice versa) or ceased to do so. The absence of evidence, therefore, should not lead us to infer the political insignificance of a state, far less its non-existence.
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A. B. I. A. = Annual Bibliography of Indian Archaeology (Published by Kern Institute, Leyden).
v2.c11.s3.12
Ann. Rep. Arch. Surv. = Annual Report of the Archaeological Survey of India.
v2.c11.s3.13
Arch. Ond. = Archaeologisch Onderzock op Java en Madura (By the Commission appointed in 1901), 3 volumes dealing respectively with Tjaṇḍi Djago, Tjaṇḍi Singasāri, and Barabuḍur.
v2.c11.s3.14
Arch. Surv. = Archaeological Survey Report (Provincial).
v2.c11.s3.15
B. C. A. I. = Bulletin de la commission Archaeologique de l'Indochine.
v2.c11.s3.16
Beal = Buddhist Records of the Western World, Translated from the Chinese of Hiuen Tsiang by Samuel Beal (London, 1906).
v2.c11.s3.17
B. E. F. E. O. = Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême-Orient, (Hanoi).
v2.c11.s3.18
Berg-Hoofdlijnen = Hoofdlijnen der Javaansche Litteratuur-Geschiedenis by C. C. Berg (1929)
v2.c11.s3.19
Berg-Inleiding = Inleiding tot de studie van het Oud-Javaansch (1928)
v2.c11.s3.20
Bib-Jav = Bibliotheca Javanica
v2.c11.s3.21
B. K. I. = Bijdragen tot de taal-, land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië, uitgegeven door het Koninklijk Instituut voor de Taal-, land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indië
v2.c11.s3.22
Cat. I. = Supplement op den Catalogus van de Javaansche en Madoereesche Handschriften der Leidsche Universiteits-Bibliotheck by Dr. H. H. Juynboll. Leiden, Vol. I (1907), Vol. II (1911), Cat. II. = Supplement op den Catalogus van de Sundaneesche Handschriften en Catalogus van Balineesche en Sasaksche Handschriften der Leidsche Universiteits-Bibliotheek by Dr. H. H. Juynboll (1912).
v2.c11.s3.23
Cat. III. = Catalogus van de Maleische en Sundaneesche Handschriften der Leidsche Universiteits-Bibliotheek by Dr. H. H. Juynboll (1899).
v2.c11.s3.24
Cat. IV. = Juynboll-Catalogus van 's Rijks Ethnographisch Museum.
v2.c11.s3.25
Chau Ju-kua = Chu-fan-chï by Chau Ju-kua. Translated by F. Hirth and W. W. Rockhill. St. Petersburg (1911).
v2.c11.s3.26
Coedes-Textes = Textes d'auteurs Grecs et Latins relatifs a l' Extrême-Orient depuis le IVe siècle Av. J. C. jusqu'au XIV siècle. Recueillis et traduits par George Coedès (Paris-Ernest Leroux, 1910).
v2.c11.s3.27
Cohn-Ind. = Indische Plastik von William Cohn (Berlin, 1923)
v2.c11.s3.28
Congres I = Handelingen van het eerste Congres voor de taal-, land- en volkenkunde van Java, 1919 (Albrecht & Co-Weltevreden).
v2.c11.s3.29
Coomaraswamy = Ananda K. Coomaraswamy—History of Indian and Indonesian Art (1927).
v2.c11.s3.30
Crawfurd-Dictionary = A Descriptive Dictionary of the Indian Islands and Adjacent Countries by John Crawfurd, London (1856)
v2.c11.s3.31
Encycl. Ned. Ind. = Encyclopaedië van Nederlandsch-Indië, Second Edition (1919).
v2.c11.s3.32
Ep. Carn. = Epigraphia Carnatica.
v2.c11.s3.33
Ep. Ind. = Epigraphia Indica.
v2.c11.s3.34
Fa-hien = A record of Buddhistic Kingdoms by Fa-hien. Translated by J. Legge (Oxford, 1886).
v2.c11.s3.35
Feestbundel = Feestbundel uitgegeven door Koninklijk Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen bei gelegenheid van zijn 150-jarig Bestaan 1778-1928 (G. Kolff & Co, 1929).
v2.c11.s3.36
Ferrand-Textes = Relations de Voyages et Textes Geographiques Arabes, Persans et Turks relatifs a l'Extrême-Orient du VIIIe au XVIIIe siècles by Gabriel Ferrand, 2 Vols (Paris-Ernest Leroux 1913-14).
v2.c11.s3.37
Foucher-Etude, I = Étude sur l'Iconographie Bouddhique de l'Inde by A. Foucher (Paris, 1900).
v2.c11.s3.38
Foucher-Etude, II = Do-Paris, 1905
v2.c11.s3.39
Friederich-Bali = An account of the Island of Bali by Dr. R. Friederich (Miscellaneous Papers relating to Indo-China and the Indian Archipelago, Second Series, Vol. II, London, 1887).
v2.c11.s3.40
Fruin-Mees = Geschiedenis van Java by W. Fruin-Mees. Part I (2nd Edition, Weltevreden, 1922).
v2.c11.s3.41
Gerini-Researches = Researches on Ptolemy's Geography of Eastern Asia by Colonel G. E. Gerini, London (1909).
v2.c11.s3.42
Goris = Bijdrage Tot de kennis der Oud-Javaansche en Balineesche Theologie by R. Goris. Leiden, 1926.
v2.c11.s3.43
Groeneveldt-Notes = Notes on the Malay Archipelago and Malacca compiled from Chinese Sources by W. P. Groeneveldt. V. B. G. Vol. XXXIX, Part I. (Batavia, 1877)
v2.c11.s3.44
I. A. L. = Indian Art and Letters.
v2.c11.s3.45
I. C. = Indian Culture (Calcutta).
v2.c11.s3.46
I. H. Q. = Indian Historical Quarterly (Calcutta).
v2.c11.s3.47
Ind. Ant. = Indian Antiquary.
v2.c11.s3.48
Indian Art = The Influences of Indian Art. Published by the India Society 1925.
v2.c11.s3.49
I-tsing-Memoire = Mémoire composé a l'époque de la grande dynastie T'ang sur les Religieux Eminents qui allerent chercher la loi dans les pays d'occident par I-tsing. Translated by E. Chavannes (Paris 1894).
v2.c11.s3.50
I-tsing-Record = A Record of the Buddhist religion as practised in India and the Malay Archipelago (A.D. 671-695) by I-tsing. Translated by J. Takakusu (Oxford, 1896).
v2.c11.s3.51
J. A. = Journal Asiatique.
v2.c11.s3.52
J. A. S. B. = Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (1865-1904).
v2.c11.s3.53
J. A. S. B. N. S. = Do, New Series (1905-1934).
v2.c11.s3.54
J. A. S. B. L. = Do (Letters, from 1935).
v2.c11.s3.55
J. Bo. Br. R. A. S. = Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society.
v2.c11.s3.56
J. B. O. R. S. = Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society.
v2.c11.s3.57
J. F. M. S. M. = Journal of the Federated Malay States Museum.
v2.c11.s3.58
J. G. I. S. = Journal of the Greater India Society.
v2.c11.s3.59
J. I. H. = Journal of Indian History.
v2.c11.s3.60
J. Mal. Br. R. A. S. = Journal of the Malay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society.
v2.c11.s3.61
Jonker—Wetboek = Een Oud-Javaansch Wetboek vergeleken met Indische Rechtsbronnen by J. C. G. Jonker (Leiden, 1885).
v2.c11.s3.62
J. R. A. S. = Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland.
v2.c11.s3.63
J. Str. Br. R. A. S. = Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society.
v2.c11.s3.64
Kempers = The Bronzes of Nalanda and Hindu Javanese Art by Dr. A. J. Bernet Kempers (Leiden) (Originally published as an article in B. K. I. Vol. 90, pp. 1-88).
v2.c11.s3.65
K. O. = Kawi Oorkonden in Facsimile Met Inleiding en Transcriptie by Dr. A. B. Cohen Stuart (Leiden, 1875).
v2.c11.s3.66
Krom—Geschiedenis = Hindoe-Javaansche Geschiedenis by Dr. N. J. Krom (Martinus Nijhoff, Hague, 1926). The second Edition (1931) is indicated by Krom-Geschiedenis².
v2.c11.s3.67
Krom-Kunst=Inleiding tot de Hindoe-Javaansche Kunst by Dr. N. J. Krom (Martinus Nijhoff, Hague, 1923).
v2.c11.s3.68
Lévi-Texts=Sanskrit Texts from Bāli by Sylvain Lévi (Gaekwad Oriental Series).
v2.c11.s3.69
Mid. Jav. Trad.=Berg—De Middeljavaansche Historische Traditie (1927).
v2.c11.s3.70
Nag. Kr.=Nāgara-Kṛtāgama Edited by H. Kern (V. G. Vols. VII-VIII).
v2.c11.s3.71
N. I. O. N.=Nederlandsch Indië, Oud en Nieuw
v2.c11.s3.72
Not. Bat. Gen.=Notulen van de Algemeene en Bestuursvergaderingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen.
v2.c11.s3.73
O. B.=Oudheden van Bali by Dr. W. F. Stutterheim (Singradja, 1929).
v2.c11.s3.74
O. J. O.=Oud-Javaansche Oorkonden. Nagelaten Transcripties van Wijlen Dr. J. L. A. Brandes. Uitgegeven door Dr. N. J. Krom ; V. B. G. Vol. LX. (Batavia and the Hague, 1913.)
v2.c11.s3.75
O. V.=Oudheidkundig Verslag (Rapporten van den Oudheidkundig Dienst in Nederlandsch Indië, Series I, 1912-1919 ; Series II. 1920 etc.)
v2.c11.s3.76
Par=Pararaton of Het Boek der Koningen van Tumapel en van Majapahit door Brandes ; Tweede Druk door Dr. N. J. Krom (V. B. G. Deel LXII), 1920.
v2.c11.s3.77
Poerbatjaraka-Agastya=Agastya in den Archipel by Poerbatjaraka (Lesya) (Leiden, 1926).
v2.c11.s3.78
Raffles-Java=The History of Java by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, 2nd Edition (London, 1830).
v2.c11.s3.79
Rapporten=Rapporten van de Commissie in Nederlandsch-Indië voor Oudheidkundig Onderzock op Java en Madura, 1901 etc.
v2.c11.s3.80
Rum-Serams=De Rum Serams op Nieuw-Guinea of Het Hinduisme in het Oosten van onzen Archipel door Dr. D. W. Horst (Leiden, 1893).
v2.c11.s3.81
Sarkar-Literature = Indian Influences on the Literature of Java and Bali, Calcutta, 1934.
v2.c11.s3.82
Sastri-Colas = 'The Colas' by Prof. K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, Madras, 1935.
v2.c11.s3.83
S. I. Ep. Rep. = Annual Report on South Indian Epigraphy.
v2.c11.s3.84
S. I. I. = South Indian Inscriptions.
v2.c11.s3.85
Tantu = De Tantu Panggelaran by Th. Pigeaud (Hague, 1924).
v2.c11.s3.86
T. B. G. = Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen (1853 *etc.*), Batavia.
v2.c11.s3.87
V. B. G. = Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen, Batavia.
v2.c11.s3.88
V. G. = Verspreide Geschriften van Prof. Dr. H. Kern.
First 200 of 5,327 passages. Read on
Linked texts (22)
- Jātaka — Pāli
- Matsyapurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
- Mahābhārata — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
- Vālmīkirāmāyaṇa — Vālmīki, Sanskrit
- Kathāsaritsāgara — Somadeva Bhaṭṭa, Sanskrit
- Milindapañha — Pāli
- Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra — Kauṭilya, Sanskrit
- Bṛhatkathāślokasaṃgraha — Budhasvāmin, Sanskrit
- Aṣṭādhyāyī — Pāṇini, Sanskrit
- Laṅkāvatārasūtra — Sanskrit
- Mudrārākṣasa — Viśākhadatta, Sanskrit
- Mahākarmavibhaṅga — Sanskrit
- Epigraphia Indica
- Mahāvaṃsa — Pāli
- Mohenjo-daro
- Jātakamālā — Āryaśūra, Sanskrit
- Kahakosu — Śrīcandra (Apabhraṃśa), Apabhraṃśa
- South Indian Inscriptions
- Paloura
- Dimapur
- Kāñchī
- Bṛhatkathāmañjarī — Kṣemendra, Sanskrit