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Social and Political Life in the Vijayanagara Empire (A.D. 1346 – A.D. 1646) v2.c25: Chapter IX. Festivals, Games, and Amusements

Social and Political Life in the Vijayanagara Empire (A.D. 1346 – A.D. 1646) v2.c25

Language
English

Contents

Chapter IX. Festivals, Games, and Amusements

Section I. Religious Festivals

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There are detailed notices of some of the most important religious festivals and amusements of Vijayanagara in the accounts of foreign travellers which may be examined with the aid of inscriptions and literature. The most magnificent festivals were those held in connection with the great temple cars and the Mahānavami. Two other festivals also appeared singular to foreigners and these were the Hōḷi and the Siḍi (or Sēḍi.) We shall not dwell on the philosophical or symbolic significance of these celebrations but shall merely describe them in order to complete the account of the life of the people of Vijayanagara.¹

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¹ For a detailed account of some of the most important religious festivals, read Wilson, *Religion of the Hindus*, II, pp. 152, *seq.* (1862 ed.); Wilkins, *Mod. Hind.*, p. 214, *seq.*, Abbé Dubois, *Hindu Manners*, I, p. 279; II, p. 575, *seq.*, 706, *seq.* For chronological details of the festivals days, see Kielhorn *I. A.*, XXVI, p. 177, *seq.* The following may also be noted: *Manual of Adm. of the Madras Presy.*, I, pp. 92, (n), 93, 94; E. D. Ross, *An Alphabetical List of the Feasts and Holidays of the Hindus and Muhammadans* (Calcutta, 1914).

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Before we deal with them in detail, we may enumerate the different kinds of festivals mentioned in the inscriptions. Some of the epigraphs merely contain references to ordinary festivals; others, to the greater celebrations which foreign travellers also witnessed. Thus an inscription dated A. D. 1375 relates that Dēvaṇṇa Oḍeyar, along with the inhabitants of Kaivāra-nāḍ, in order that merit might accrue to his father Īśvara Dēva, instituted a festival for the god Bhīmīśuram-Uḍaiyar-Nāyanār of Kaivāra.² But a more detailed account is given in a stone record dated about A. D. 1397 which informs us that the great general of Harihara Rāya, Guṇḍa Daṇḍādhipa, made provision for the following festivals in the Chennakēśava temple at Bēlūr: the daily worship according to the *pañcha rātra* ritual and the *mantra siddhānta*, the worship of the throne, the enthronement for the bath, enthronement for the decorations, the enthronement for processions, the enthronement for offerings of food, the enthronement for retiring to rest, the display of the sacred emblems, the ceremonial contact, the sixty-four festivals of rejoicing, the worship with flowers, the daily oblation, the daily procession, the fortnightly festivals, the monthly festival, the yearly festival, the festival of purifications, the festival of remaining at home, the festival of the engine (or disc), the festival of invoking Rāma and Kṛṣṇa, the festital of worship with lotuses, the swing festival, the festival of illumination, the festival in Mārgaśira, the festival in Pushya, the festival in Chaitra, the decoration with the nine gems, the decoration with new clothes and jewels, the burning of sandal perfume, the congratulation, the presentation of fruit and delicacies, the presentation of a bull, the offering of honey, the offering of seeds, the display of the four divisions of the army, the exhibition of the mirror and of garlands, the exhibition of dancing, the procession to the treasury, the bathing at equinoxes, at solstices, and at the time of the sun's entering a new sign, the waving of lights, the penance for defects (or omissions) in the daily service, and the penance for accidental interruptions, the peace offering and the festival of bringing the god home from a distance.¹

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² E. C., X, Ct. 94, p. 262.

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¹ Rice, My. Ins., p. 223; E. C., V, P. II, Bl. 3, p, 145.

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An inscription dated about A. D. 1495 gives us some more festivals. These were the pañchāmṛita anointing of the god, the offerings, perpetual lamp, prayers with flowers, worship with fruit, putting on of davana leaves, putting on of the pavitra, the worship with lights in Kārttika and Kṛittikā, the spring festival and other festivals at the five parvas, the feast of lights, the worship and offerings at Śivarātri, new years's day, and other great tithis.²

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² E. C., V. P. I, Cn. 259, pp. 234; P. II, p. 699. Cf. My Arch. Report for 1913-14. p. 49, for festivals mentioned in A. D. 1544; 80 of 1915 dated Saka 1476 (A. D. 1554-5); Ep. Ind. IV, pp. 5, 6 and n. (1), for a record dated A. D. 1556; Ep. Ind., IX, p. 341, for an inscription of A. D. 1567. For various monthly celebrations as given in tradition, read Taylor, O. H. MSS., II., p. 153.

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These and many other festivals in temples were conducted with the aid of the assignments given in the shape of revenue and produce by the princes and people of Vijayanagara.

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The most remarkable festival which dazzled the foreigners was the Mahānavami celebration. Religious in its atmosphere, it is essentially political in its significance. For it commemorates the anniversary of Rāma's marching against Rāvaṇa, and in its twofold aspect of the worship of Durgā and of the āyudhas or arms, culminating in the Vijaya-daśami,³ was particularly suited to the Vijayanagara times when fatal issues loomed ominously in the political horizon. According to the Hindu calendar it falls in Āśvina-śuklapaksha (September-October).¹

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³ Cf. Suryanarayana Rao, The City, p. 37.

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¹ Sewell correctly ascribes the Mahānavami festivals to the 1st of the month of Aśvina, but one fails to understand how the New Year's Day could succeed it in the month of Kārtika. Sewell is evidently wrong in squeezing the New Year's Day between Aśvina and Mārgaśirsha. See below. Cf. Suryanarayana Rao, *The City*, p. 12. According to legend this festival is associated with the early days of Vijayanagara history when Vidyāranya propitiated Bhuvanēśvari (or Durgā). Taylor, *O.H. MSS.*, II., p. 103.

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'Abdur Razzāq witnessed this great festival. He calls it *Mahanāwī*, and describes it thus: "The infidels of this country who are endowed with power, are fond of displaying their pride, pomp, power and glory, in holding every year a stately and magnificent festival, which they call *Mahanāwī*, the manner of it is this: The King of Bijānagar directed that all his nobles and chiefs should assemble at the royal abode from all the provinces of his country, which extends for the distance of three or four months' journey. They brought with them a thousand elephants tumultuous as the sea, and thundering as the clouds, arrayed in armour, and adorned with howdahs, on which jugglers and throwers of naphtha were seated; and on the foreheads, trunks, and ears of the elephants extraordinary forms and pictures were traced with cinnabar and other pigments...On that beautiful plain were raised enchanting pavilions of from two to five stages high, on which from top to bottom were painted all kinds of figures that the imagination can conceive, of men, wild animals, birds, and all kinds of beasts, down to flies and gnats. All these were painted with exceeding delicacy and taste. Some of these pavilions were so constructed, that they revolved, and every moment offered a different face to the view. Every instant each stage and each chamber presented a new and charming sight.

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"In the front of that plain, a pillared edifice was constructed of nine stories in height, ornamented with exceeding beauty. The throne of the king was placed on the ninth story. The place assigned to me was the seventh story, from which every one was excluded except my own friends. Between this palace and the pavilions there was an open space beautifully laid out, in which singers and story-tellers exercised their respective arts. The singers were for the most part young girls... They were seated behind a beautiful curtain, opposite the king. On a sudden the curtain was removed on both sides, and the girls began to move with their feet with such grace, that wisdom lost its senses, and the soul was intoxicated with delight."¹

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¹ Elliot, *Hist. of India*, IV, pp, 117-18; Major, *India*, p. 35, *seq.*, Sewell persists in maintaining his mistake that the New Year's Day was celebrated in Vijayanagara on the 1st Kārtlika *For. Emp.*, p. 93. It requires no argument to maintain that the orthodox people of Vijayanagara did not fail to observe the New Year's Day at the usual time in March, and the attempts of Sewell, therefore, to prove that 'Abdur Razzāq was wrong in ascribing the Mahanāwi festival to the month of Rajab, are futile. Cf. Suryanarayana Rao, *The City*, p. 37. (n.). But see ibid, p. 36 where Mr. Suryanarayana Rao speaks of it as a sort of political conference. Payne has some remarks to make on this subject. *Scenes from Indian History*, p. 71.

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The Persian ambassador who was thus bewitched by the beautiful dancing-girls, does not give us more details about the Mahānavami festival, although he describes the jugglers at play on the same occasion. He tells us, however, something about the duration of the celebration. "For three continuous days, from the time that the world-enlightening sun began to glow like a peacock in the heavens, until that when the crow of evening's obscurity displayed its wings and feathers, this royal fete continued with the most gorgeous display. One cannot, without entering into great detail, mention all the various kinds of pyrotechny and squibs, and various other amusements which were exhibited."²

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² Elliot, ibid., IV, p. 119.

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As regards the throne of the monarch, he says, "During the three days the king sat on the throne upon this cushion, and when the celebration of the Mahanāwi was over, he sent for this humble individual one evening at the time of prayer." In the same connection he describes the throne: "It was of a prodigious size, made of gold inlaid with beautiful jewels, and ornamented with exceeding delicacy and art; seeing that this kind of manufacture is nowhere excelled in the other kingdoms of the earth. Before the throne there was placed a cushion of *zaitūni* satin, round which three rows of the most exquisite pearls were sewn."¹

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¹ Elliot, *Hist. of India*, p. 120.

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What 'Abdur Razzāq failed to notice Paes was careful to observe. The description of the Mahānavami festival as given by the Portuguese chronicler is long and interesting. "You should know that among these heathen there are days when they celebrate their feasts as with us.....When the time of the principal festival arrives the king comes from the new city² to this city of Bisnaga, since it is the capital of the kingdom and it is the custom there to make their feasts and to assemble. For these feasts are summoned all the dancing-women of the kingdom, in order that they should be present; and also the captains and kings and great lords with all their retinues,—except only those whom the king may have sent to make war, or those who are in other parts, or are at the far end of the kingdom on the side where (an attack) is feared, such as the kingdom of Oria, and the territories on the Ydallcao; and even if such captains are absent in such places, there appear for them at the feasts those whom I shall hereafter mention.

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² Nāgalāpura, ?.

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"These feasts begin on the 12th of September, and they last nine days, and take place at the king's palace.³

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³ Cf 'Abdur Razzāq's computation. There cannot be a doubt that both refer to the Mahānavami festival. Sewell interprets Paes' remarks to mean the Kanarese New Year's Day. *For. Emp.*, p. 85.

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"The palace is on this fashion : it has a gate opening on to the open space of which I have spoken, and over this gate is a tower of some height, made like the others with its verandahs; outside these gates begins the wall which I said encircled the palace. At the gate are many doorkeepers with leather scourges in their hands, and sticks, and they let no one enter but the captains and chief people, and those about whom they receive orders from the Chief of the Guard. Passing this gate you have an open space, and then you have another gate like the first, also with its doorkeepers and guards; and as soon as you enter inside this you have a large open space, and on one side and the other are low verandahs where are seated the captains and chief people in order to witness the feasts, and on the left side of the north of this open space is a great one-storeyed building (terrea); all the rest are like it. This building stands on pillars shaped like elephants and with other figures, and all open in front, and they go up to it by staircases of stone; around it, underneath, is a terrace (corredor) paved with very good flagstones, where stand some of the people looking at the feast. This house is called the House of Victory as it was made when the king came back from the war against Orya, as I have already told you. On the right side of the open space were some narrow scaffoldings, made of wood and so lofty that they could be seen over the top of the wall; they are covered at the top with crimson and green velvet and other handsome cloths, and adorned from top to bottom. Let no one fancy that these cloths were of wool, because there are none such in the country, but they are of very fine cotton. These scaffoldings are not always kept at that place, but they are specially made for these feasts; there are eleven of them. Against the gates there were two circles in which were the dancing-women, richly arrayed with many jewels of gold and diamonds and many pearls. Opposite the gate which is on the east side of the front of the open space, and in the middle of it, there are two buildings of the same sort as the House of Victory of which I have spoken; these buildings are served by a kind of staircase of stone beautifully wrought—one is in the middle and the other at the end. This building was all hung with rich cloths, both the walls and the ceiling, as well as the supports, and the cloths of the walls were adorned with figures in the manner of embroidery; these buildings have two platforms one above the other, beautifully sculptured, with their sides well made and worked, to which platforms the sons of the king's favourites come for the feasts, and sometimes his eunuchs. On the upper platform, close to the king, was Christovao de Figueiredo, with all of us who came with him, for the king commanded that he should be put in such a place as best to see the feasts and magnificence. . . .

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"Returning to the feasts, you must know that in this House of Victory the king has a room (casa) made of cloth, with its door closed, where the idol has a shrine; and in the other, in the middle (of the building), is placed a dais opposite the staircase in the middle; on which dais stands a throne of state made thus,—it is four-sided, and flat, with a round top, and a hollow in the middle for the seat. As regards the woodwork of it, you must know that it is all covered with silk cloths (? soajes),¹ and has lions all of gold, and in the spaces between the cloths (soajes) it has plates of gold with many rubies and seed-pearls, and pearls underneath; and round the sides it is full of galden images of personages, and upon these is much work in gold, with many precious stones. In this chair is placed an idol, also of gold, embowered in roses and flowers. On one side of this chair, on the dais below, stands a head-dress; this also is made in the same manner; it is upright and as high as a span, the top is rounded, it is all full of pearls and rubies and all other precious stones, and on the top of it is a pearl as large as a nut, which is not quite round. On the other side is an anklet for the foot made in the same fashion; it is another state jewel, and is full of large pearls and of many rubies, emeralds and diamonds, and other stones of value; it will be of the thickness of a man's arm. In front of all this, at the edge of the dais, resting on a support were some cushions where the king was seated during all these feasts. The feasts commence thus:—

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¹ Sewell, For. Emp., p. 265, n. (1)

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"You must know that when it is morning the king comes to this House of Victory, and betakes himself to that room where the idol is with its Brahmans, and he performs his prayers and ceremonies. Outside the house are some of his favourites, and on the square are many dancing-girls dancing. In their verandahs round the square are many captains and chief people who come there in order to see; and on the ground, near the platform of the house, are eleven horses with handsome and well-arranged trappings, and behind them are four beautiful elephants with many adornments. After the king has entered inside he comes out, and with him a Brahman who takes in his hand a basket full of white roses and approaches the king on the platform, and the king, taking three handfuls of these roses, throws them to the horses, and after he has thrown them he takes a basket of perfumes and acts towards them as though he would cense them; and when he has finished doing this he reaches towards the elephants and does the same to them. And when the king has finished this, the Brahman takes the basket and descends to the platform, and from thence puts those roses and other flowers on the heads of all the horses and this done, returns to the king. Then the king goes again to where the idol is, and as soon as he is inside they lift the curtains of the room, which are made like the purdahs of a tent, and the king seats himself where these are, and they lift them all. Thence he witnesses the slaughter of twenty-four buffaloes and a hundred and fifty sheep, with which a sacrifice is made to that idol; you must know that they cut off the heads of these buffaloes and sheep at one blow with certain large sickles which are wielded by a man who has charge of this slaughter; they are so sure of hand that no blow misses. When they have finished the slaughter of these cattle, the king goes out and goes to the other large buildings, on the platforms of which is a crowd of Brahmans, and as soon as the king ascends to where they stand they throw to the king ten or twelve roses—those (that is) who are nearest to him. Then he passes all along the top of the building and as soon as he is at the end he takes the cap from his head and after placing it on the ground turns back (to the place) where the idol is; here he lies extended on the ground. When he has arisen he betakes himself to the interior of the building, and enters a garden (or walled enclosure—quyntal) where they say that a little fire has been made, and he throws into the fire a powder made up of many things, namely, rubies and pearls and all other kinds of precious stones, and aloes and othe sweet scented things. This done, he returns to the pagoda and goes inside and stays a little, at which time enter by the other door some of his favourites who are in the building, and they make their salaam. Then he goes back to the place whence he threw the flowers to the horses, and as soon as he is here all the captains and chief people come and make their salaam to him, and some, if they so desire, present some gifts to him; then as they come so they retire, and each one betakes himself to his own dwelling. And the king withdraws to the interior of his palace by that gate which I have already mentioned—that which stands between the two buildings that are in the arena (terreyro); the courtezans and bayaderes remain dancing in front of the temple and idol for a long time. This is what is done during the morning of each day of these nine days, with the ceremonies I have mentioned, and each day more splendid (than the last).

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"Now, returning to the feasts. At three o'clock in the afternoon every one comes to the palace. They do not admit every one at once (they allowed us to go into the open part that is between the gates), but there go inside only the wrestlers and dancing-women, and the elephants, which go with their trappings and decorations, those that sit on them being armed with shields and javelins, and wearing quilted tunics. As soon as these are inside they range themselves round the arena, each one in his place, and the wrestlers go close to the staircase which is in the middle of that building, where has been prepared a large space of ground for the dancing-women to wrestle. Many other people are then at the entrance-gate opposite to the building, namely Brahmans, and the sons of the king's favourites, and their relations; all these are noble youths who serve before the king. The officers of the household go about keeping order amongst all the people, and keep each one in his own place. The different pavilions are separated by doors, so that no one may enter unless he is invited.

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"Salvatinica (Sāḷuva Timma), who is the principal person that enters the building, supervises the whole, for he brought up the king, and made him king, and so the king looks upon him like a father. Whenever the king calls to him he addresses him as ‘Lord (senhor) Salvatinica’, and all the captains and nobles of the realm make salaam to him. This Salvatinica stands inside the arena where the festivals go on, near one of the doors, and from there gives the word for the admission of all the things necessary for the festival.

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“After all this is done and arranged the king gives forth and seats himself on the dais I have mentioned, where is the throne and the other things, and all those that are inside make their salaam to him. As soon as they have done this the wrestlers seat themselves on the ground, for these are allowed to remain seated, but no other, howsoever great a lord he be, except the king so commands; and these also eat betel, though none else may eat it in his presence except the dancing-women who may always eat it before him. As soon as the king is seated in his place he bids to sit with him three or four men who belong to his race, and who are themselves kings and fathers of his wives; the principal of these is the king of Syrimgapatao and of all the territory bordering on Malabar, and this king is called Cumarvirya,¹ and he seats himself as far in front as the king on the other side of the dais, the rest are behind.

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¹ See Sewell's note on this. For. Emp., p. 269, n. (1).

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“There the king sits, dressed in white clothes all covered with (embroidery of) golden roses and wearing his jewels—he wears a quantity of these white garments, and I always saw him so dressed—and around him stand his pages with his betel, and his sword, and the other things which are his insignia of state. Many Brahmans stand round the throne on which rests the idol, fanning it with horsetail plumes, coloured, the handles of which are all overlaid with gold; these plumes are tokens of the highest dignity, they also fan the king with them.

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“As soon as the king is seated, the captains who waited without making their entrance, each one by himself, attended by his chief people, and so on, all in order; they approach and make their salaams to the king, and then take their places in the pavilions (veramdas) which I have previously described. As soon as these nobles have finished entering, the captains of the troops approach with shields and spears, and afterwards the captains of the archers ; these officers are all stationed on the ground around the arena in front of the elephants and they constitute the king's guard, for into such a place no man may enter bearing arms, nor near to where the king is. As soon as these soldiers have all taken their places the women begin to dance, while some of them place themselves in the circular galleries that I have said were (erected) at their gate of entrance. Who can fitly describe to you the great riches these women carry on their persons ? . . .¹

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¹ Infra, Section on Games and Amusements.

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“ Then the wrestlers begin their play. . . .

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“ In all this portion of the day nothing more is done than this wrestling and the dancing of the women, but as soon as ever the sun is down many torches are lit and some great flambeaux made of cloth ; and these are placed about the arena in such a way that the whole is as light as day, and even along the top of the walls, for on all the battlements are lighted lamps, and the place where the king sits is all full of torches. As soon as these are all lit up there are introduced many very graceful plays and contrivances, but these do not stop long; they only approach where the king is and then go out. Then there enter others in other fashion, with battles of people on horseback ; these horses are like the hobby-horses made in Portugal for the feast of the Corpo de Dios; others come with casting-nets, fishing, and capturing the men that are in the arena. When these amusements are ended, they begin to throw up many rockets and many different sorts of fires, also castles that burn and fling out from themselves many bombs (tiros) and rockets.

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“ When these fireworks are finished, there enter many triumphant cars² which belong to the captains, some of them sent by those captains who are waging war in foreign parts; and they enter thus. The first belongs to Salvatinica, and they come in one after the other. Some of the cars appear covered with many rich cloths, having on them many devices of dancing-girls and other humun figures; there are other cars having tiers one on top of another, and others all of one kind; and so in their order they pass to where the king is. When the cars have gone out they are immediately followed by many horses covered with trappings and cloths of very fine stuff of the king's colours, and with many roses and flowers on their heads and necks, and with their bridles all gilded; and in front of these horses goes a horse with two state-umbrellas of the king, and with grander decorations than the others, and one of the lesser equerries leads it by the bridle..

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² These are evidently the chariots to which we have referred in an earlier connection. B. A. S.

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"These horses then, going in the way I have stated, pass twice round the arena and place themselves in the middle of the arena in five or six lines, one before the other, and the king's horse in front of them, all facing the king; they stand in such a way that between them and the men there is an open space all round. As soon as they are arranged in this way and are all quiet there goes out from the inside of the palace a Brahman, the highest in rank of those about the king, and two others with him, and this chief Brahman carries in his hands a bowl with a cocoanut and some rice and flowers, while others carry a pot of water; and they pass round by the back of the horses, which all stand facing the king; and after performing his ceremonies there, he returns to the palace.

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"After this is over you will see issuing from inside twenty-five or thirty female doorkeepers, with canes in their hands...¹

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¹ Supra, Chapter, IV. Women.

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"When these women retire the horses also go, and then come the elephants, and after making their salaam they too retire. As soon as they are gone the king retires by a small door which is at the end of the building. Then the Brahmans go and take an idol, and carry it to the House of Victory where is the room of cloth that I have spoken of; and the king at once comes from within, and goes to where the idol is, and offers his prayers and performs his ceremonies. Then they bring there more buffaloes and sheep, and kill them in the same way as before, and then come the professional women to dance. As soon as the slaughter of the buffaloes and sheep is over the king retires, and goes to his supper; for he fasts all these nine days, and (each day) they eat nothing until all is finished, and their hour of food is midnight. The bayaderes remain dancing before the idol a long time after all this is done.

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"In this way are celebrated these festivals of nine days; on the last day there are slaughtered two hundred and fifty buffaloes and four thousand five hundred sheep.

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"When these days of festival are past, the king holds a review of all his forces, and the review is thus arranged."¹

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¹ Sewell, For. Emp., pp. 262-75.

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Nuniz also witnessed the Mahānavami festival but his account is not so complete as that of Paes. Nuniz writes thus: "When he wishes to please his captains, or persons from whom he has received or wishes to receive good service, he gives them scarves of honour for their personal use, which is a great honour; and this he does each year to the captains at the time that they pay him their land-rents. This takes place in the month of September when for nine days they make great feasts. Some say that they do this in honour of the nine months during which Our Lady bore her Son in the womb; others say that it is only done because at this time the captains come to pay their rents to the King. Which feasts are conducted in the following manner.

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"The first day they put nine castles in a piece of ground which is in front of the palace, which castles are made by the nine principal captains in the kingdom. They are very lofty and are hung with rich cloths, and in them are many dancinggirls and also many kinds of contrivances. Besides these nine every captain is obliged to make each one his castle, and they come to show these to the King. Each one has his separate device, and they all come like this during the nine days of the feast. The officers of the city are bound to come with their devices each day at night, just as in our festivals, and in these nine days they slaughter animals and make sacrifice. The first day they kill nine male buffaloes and nine sheep and nine goats, and thenceforward they kill each day more, always doubling the number; and when they have finished slaying these beasts, there come nine horses and nine elephants of the King, and these come before the king covered with flowers—roses—and with rich trappings. Before them goes the chief Master of the Horse with many attendants, and they make salaam to the King. And when these have finished making their salaam there come from within priests, and they bring rice and other cooked edibles, and water, and fire, and many kinds of scents, and they offer prayers and throw the water over the horses and elephants, just (as our priests do with) holy water; and they put chaplets of roses on them. This is done in the presence of the King, who remains seated on a throne of gold and precious stone; he never sits on this except only this once in the year. And this King¹ that now reigns does not sit on it, for they say that whoever sits on it must be a very truthful man, one who speaks the whole truth, and this King never does so. Whilst this is going on there pass by the King fully a thousand women, dancing and posturing before him. After all the devices that have been prepared have been witnessed all the horses of the King pass by, covered with their silken trappings, and with much adornment of gold and precious stones on their heads, and then all the elephants and yokes of oxen in the middle of the arena in front of the palace. After these have been seen there come thirty-six of the most beautiful of the King's wives,² covered with gold and pearls, and much work of seed-pearls, and in the hands of each a vessel of gold with a lamp of oil burning in it; and with these women come all the female servants and the other wives of the King, with canes in their hands tipped with gold and with torches burning; and these then retire inside with the King...

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¹ Achyuta Rāya.

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² Paes in the above passage clearly tells us that they were doorkeepers. Nuniz makes them the king's wives! This once again proves that Nuniz cannot be relied upon for many of his statements. B. A. S.

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"In this way during these nine days they are compelled to search for all things which will give pleasure to the King."¹

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¹ Sewell, *For. Emp.*, pp. 376-8.

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There are two details in the foregoing accounts of the foreign writers, especially of Paes, on which some light is thrown in the traditional accounts of the south. The first refers to the buffalos and the second to the "anklet for the foot" which was of "the thickness of a man's arm." The former is connected with the following story:

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"Shortly after, the *Nava-rattiri* festival occurred. In this capital (called the *Vizianagaram Penukondai Patnam*) was the temple of a *durga* (or goddess), to which a festival was annually dedicated; and it terminated with the offering of a wild buffalo to the goddess on the tenth day. This buffalo was generally hunted for in the jungle, by the prince of the kingdom, and usually taken in a net. On the eighth day of that year, the *Rayer*, as usual, went with his hunting party into the woods, which abounded with wild buffalos; and having chased them, a buffalo was reported to be caught in the snare laid for it by the huntsmen. This buffalo was remarkable for the strength and length of its horns, which bended backwards and reached to its tail; consequently the *Rayer* and his principal officers were much concerned at the improbability of sacrificing it with one blow, as would be needful: since a failure on this point would be a sure indication of some catastrophe, unfavourable to the future prosperity of the kingdom, according to a current tradition long since established." It was then that Viśvanātha Nāyaka, advised in a dream by the goddess, came to the rescue of the king and offered to cut off the buffalo's head at one stroke.¹

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¹ Taylor, O.H. MSS., II., p. 5.

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The other detail carries us to the palace of Tirumala Nāyaka of Mudura. The *Accounts of Tirumalai-Naicker, and of his Buildings* relate thus: "To the west, in the midst of a great dome-shaped hall, is a square building of black stone, which includes a hall made of ivory: in the middle of this is a jewelled throne, on which the king is accustomed to take his seat at the great *Nava-rattiri* festival, surrounded by all his banners, or ensigns of royalty; and where also all kings are accustomed to do homage. At that festival, the *Retsha-bandah*, (or amulet), is put on by the king." Taylor tells us the following about this amulet: "The Brahmins during the festival have to watch and fast; and, with attendant ceremonies, a thin *chakram* either wheel or square of gold, has written on it, in its various compartments certain mystical or astrological words or figures; the plate is then rolled up, inclosed in a small case and tied to the arm or wrist or suspended on the breast. It was supposed to convey to the king protection from enemies; dread and honor from subjects."²

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² Ibid., II., pp. 157-9, and 159 n.

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Conti also speaks of a nine days festival but with some uncommon details. "On the third, which last nine days, they set up in all the highways large beams, like the masts of small ships, to the upper part of which are attached pieces of very beautiful cloth of various kinds, interwoven with gold. On the summit of each of these beams is each day placed a man of pious aspect, dedicated to religion, capable of enduring all things with equanimity, who is to pray for the favour of God. These men are assailed by the people, who pelt them with oranges, lemons and other odoriferous fruits, all which they bear most patiently."³

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³ Major, India, p. 28.

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Provision was made by the people for providing offerings in temples on the occasion of this great Mahānavami festival.

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Thus a record dated Śaka 1516 (A. D. 1594-5) informs us that Raṅgappa, son of Yatirāja Ayyangār of Turiyāṣṭhakali-gōtra, gave 110 geṭṭi varaham for providing certain offerings to the god Chennakēśava Perumāḷ at Śrīperumbūdūr, Chingleput district, on the ten days of the Mahānavami festival.¹

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¹ 191 of 1922.

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Another celebration which evoked admiration from foreign travellers was the Dīpāvaḷi festival held in the month of Kārttika. This commemorates the victory which Viṣṇu scored against the Asuras and Narakāsuras, and since, as they say, it was won in the evening, there is a universal illumination of houses and temples in the land...² Conti thus describes the Dīpāvaḷi festival: "On another of these festivals they fix up within their temples, and on the outside of the roofs, an innumerable number of lamps of oil of Susimanni, which are kept burning day and night."³

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² Srikantaliyar, *I. A.*, XX, p. 430; Suryanarayana Rao, *The City*, p. 11. For an account of the Dīpāvaḷi festival, Wilson, *I. A.*, XXVI, p. 308; Gupte, *I. A.*, XXXII, pp. 237-9.

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³ Major, *India*, p. 28; Sewell, *For. Emp.*, p. 86.

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People gave contributions to the temples also for the celebration of these festivals. In about A. D. 1443 Gōvaṇṇa and Baḷḷaṇṇa, sons of Śrīranga Dēva of Araṇipura in Kaḍalūr, made a grant for the Chaitra festival of lights in the temple of Chennakēśvara according to former custom.⁴ An inscription dated Śaka 1443 (A. D. 1521-2) informs us that Sadāsiva Nāyaka provided ghee for lamps during the festival of Tirukkārtigai to the temple of Bṛihadambā at Dēvikkāpuram, for the merit of the chief (svāmi) Tirumalai Nāyaka.⁵ In Śaka 1444 (A. D. 1522-3) the daughter of the Kannaḍiya chief Dēvappuḍaiyar at Marudarśar-Paḍaiviḍu, gave a gift of ghee for the same festival to the same temple.⁶

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⁴ E. C., V, P. 1, Hn. 82, p. 25.

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⁵ 361 of 1912; Rangachari, *Top List*, I, NA 162, p. 49.

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⁶ 362 of 1912; Rangachari, ibid., NA 163, p. 50. Read Pietro della Valle's description given below.

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Foreigners observed another great festival about which they left some details. This is the car festival or the rathasaptami. Conti gives us a fanciful picture of the scene in the following words : " In Bizenegalia also, at a certain time of the year, their idol is carried through the city, placed between two chariots, in which are young women richly adorned, who sing hymns to the god, and accompanied by a great concourse of people. Many, carried away by the fervour of their faith, cast themselves on the ground before the wheels, in order that they may be crushed to death,—a mode of death which they say is very acceptable to their god. Others, making an incision in their side, and inserting a rope thus through their body, hang themselves to the chariot by way of ornament, and thus suspended and half dead accompany their idol. This kind of sacrifice they consider the best and most acceptable of all."¹

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¹ Major, India, p. 28; Sewell, For. Emp., p. 84

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Since we know that "young women richly adorned" have never been, and are not, carried in the great temple chariots during the rathasaptami festival; and that the description of people hanging "themselves to the chariot by way of ornament" refers to a festival which is quite distinct from the one under review, we may be cautious in accepting Nocolo dei Conti's other remark that many carried away by the fervour of their faith, cast themselves on the ground before the wheels in order to attain salvation.

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Paes has more sober views on the subject. This chronicler says : "Close to these pagodas is a triumphal car covered with carved work and images, and on one day in each year during a festival they drag this through the city in such streets as it can traverse. It is large and cannot turn corners."² That Paes does not relate things which he has not seen is evident from the following observations made by him on cars. "Whenever the festival of any of these temples occurs they drag along certain triumphal cars which run on wheels, and with it go dancing-girls and other women with music to the temple, (conducting) the idol along the said street with much pomp. I do not relate the manner in which these cars are taken, because in all the time that I was in this city none were taken round."¹

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² Sewell ibid., p. 255.

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¹ Sewell, *For Emp.*, p. 262.

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The fiction of people falling under the wheels of a temple car must have gained considerable popularity among foreigners. We find Linschoten repeating the story of Conti but with a significant detail at the end of his narrative which plainly indicates the nature of the source of his information. Linschoten (A. D. 1583) tells us the following: "In the Kingdome of Narsinga, on the coast called Choramandel, there standeth a Pagode, that is very great and exceeding rich, and holden in great estimation, having many Pilgrimages & Visitations made into it from all the Countries bordering about it, where every yeere they have many Faires, Feasts, and Processions, and there they have a Waggon or a Cart, which is so great and heavie, that three or foure Elephants can hardly draw it, and this brought fourth at Faires, Feasts and Processions. At this Cart hang likewise many Cables or Ropes, whereat also all the Countrey people, both men and women of pure devotion doe pull and hale. In the upper part of this cart standeth a Tabernacle or Seat, wherein sitteth the Idoll, and under it sit the Kings Wives, which after their manner play on all Instruments, making a most sweet melodie, and in that sort is the Cart drawne forth, with great Devotions and Processions: there are some of them, that of great zeale and pure devotion doe cut peeces of flesh out of their bodies, and threw them downe before the Pagode : others lay themselves under the wheeles of the Cart, and let the Cart runne over them, whereby they are all crushed to peeces, and pressed to death, and they that thus die, are accounted for holy and devout Martyrs, and from that time forwards are kept and preserved for great and holy Reliques, besides a thousand other such like beastly Superstitions, which they use, as one of my Chamber fellowes, that had seen it showed me, and it is also well knowne throughout all India."²

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² Linschoten, Purchas, *Pilgrims*, X, p. 274.

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Although Linschoten improves upon Conti's version by saying that "all the country people, both men and women," merely pulled the large cables or ropes, and that they did not "hang themselves to the chariot by way of ornament," as the latter asserts, yet the account we have given above cannot be accepted as accurate for the following reasons: Linschoten says that "under it (the image in the chariot) sit the King's wives" playing on musical instrument. Paes speaks of the dancing-women going in front of the cars. If this was the custom in the capital, it could not have been that the "king's wives" sat in the temple chariot on the coast of Coromandal. Further, Linschoten speaks of those who sacrificed themselves by falling under the wheels of the chariot "being kept and preserved for great and holy Reliques". This incredible assertion needs no refutation.

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If it were really true that people allowed themselves to be crushed under the wheels of temple chariots, other travellers would not have failed to learn something about it. It is not only Paes who does not mention this detail; in the accounts of the Jesuits too, who have also left behind them notices of the "beastly superstitions" of the Hindus spoken of by Linschoten, no reference is made to the ghastly incident given by Conti and Linschoten. Nicolas Pimenta in A. D. 1599 writes thus about the events on the Coromandal coast. While describing the city of St. Thomas (i. e. Mylapore) he says: "But so prodigious and innumerable were their Idols, in many very faire Temples, and other lessee Oratories almost without number, that Superstition contended with Ambition; and the Colosses of their Idols were removed from place to place in Chariots as high as steeples, by thousands of men setting their shoulders to the Wheeles."¹

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¹ Pimenta, Purchas, Pilgrims, X, p. 207.

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Another Jesuit named Emanuel de Veiga in his letter dated A. D. 1592 from Chandragiri tells us how "Superstition contended with Ambition" on the same coast. He writes about his voyage from Chandragiri to Mylapore. "The second day at night they lay at Trivalur, where they saw their Idols solemne Procession by night, carried into the street by eight Porters in a high Throne: the Image it selfe not above three spannes long clothed with an upper garment of red silke, an inner shirt of linnen. An Elephant went before the pompe, consecrated to the Idoll, carrying a white Banner on his backe; and after him three Oxen sacred also thereto, on which sate Drummers: after them Trumpetters and Pippers with diversified Instruments, straight, crooked, great, small. These all made a confused sound, without any observation of order and time. After these came 30 women-dancers, which have devoted themselves to the Idolls in perpetual service; which may not marrie, but prostitute themselves for the most part, all goodly and richly arrayed, all carrying Lampes burning. And the Idoll came in the Rere with his Porters and Priests, living on the revenues of the Temple. The common people followed with lights. They passed foure streets, and in their returne set the Idoll in a place erected with pillars with a stone roofe, and all the companie compassed the Idoll three times, which done, they carried him to the Temple, where foure Braehmanes entertained him, which bowed their heads to the Idoll; one of them bringing on his head a basket of boyled Rice for the Idoll's supper, attended with Fanners to scarre away Flies. When the meate was set downe, a Curtaine was drawne, lest any might see the Idoll eating, the Instruments sounding the while. Soone after the Curtaine was drawne againe, the Rice removed, the Ministers gone in, and one comes forth which makes an Oration in his praise, and then all went into the Temple, where foure houres were spent in idle idol-rites."1

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The same Jesuit traveller tells us that "at the Feast of Perimal's marriage was such concourse of people, that that daye's offering amounted to two hundred thousand Ducats, the King and Queene and Courtiers being present. The Idoll was carried in a great triumphall Chariot drawne by ten thousand men, about midnight, a mile and a halfe."1

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¹ Veiga, Purchas, Pilgrims, X, pp. 220-1. This shrewd Jesuit, who in those orthodox days would never have been able to enter even the outer precincts of a temple, must have observed the whole proceeding from outside in order to note "the meate (which) was set downe" "before the Idoll". He is evidently referring to the usual naivēdyas of a temple. B. A. S.

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Pietro della Valle noticed the great temple chariots at Ikkēri. He writes thus: "Moreover, in a close place opposite to the Temple, I saw one of those very great Carrs, or Chariots, wherein upon certain Feasts they carry their Idols in Procession, with many people on it and Dancing-women, who play on musical instruments, sing and dance. The four wheels of this Carr were fourteen of my spans in diameter, and the wood of the sides was one span thick. At the end of it were two great wooden Statues, painted with natural colours; one of a Man, the other of a woman, naked, in dishonest postures; and upon the Carr, which was very high, was room for abundance of people to stand; and, in brief, it was so large that scarce any but the widest streets in Rome as Strada Giulia, or Babuino, would be capable for it to pass in."2

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There are certain details of the car festival which may be noted before we pass on to the description of another famous festival of Vijayanagara. From the inscriptions we know that a car festival was sometimes held for nine days. Thus in A. D. 1495 Mahāmaṇḍalēśvara Timmaya Dēva Mahā-arasu's son Narasaya Dēva Mahā-arasu gave twenty-eight gadyāṇa as a gift for the offerings of the god Bayirava of Sihati and for a new car festival to be held for nine days.³

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³ E. C., X, Kl. 34, p. 8.

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Sometimes a car festival was held for fifteen days. A record dated A. D. 1562 relates that Kṛiṣhṇappa Nāyaka's agent Vēlūr Kaḷappa Nāyaka's son Mārggasahāya Nāyaka rebuilt the village of Gaṅganarasi and granted it free of all imports for the purpose of providing a car festival for the fifteen days of Chaitra-śuddha in the temple of the god Harihara. We may also note that the same inscription gives us the reason why Mārggasahāya Nāyaka granted the village. "He who made petition to Mārggasahāya Nāyaka for the village of Ganganarasi for the car festival of the god Harihara and the goddess Lakshmī and caused the village to be restored and granted, was Chaduparāla Koṇḍama Rāja's son, Sūrappaiya. Great good fortune to him."¹ This last statement suggests that Sūrappaiya had conferred a boon on the temple and the people.

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¹ Veiga, Purchas, Pilgrims, X, p. 222.

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² Pietro della Valle, Travels, II pp. 259-60. Cf. Peter Mundy's description of the car festival also at Ikkēri. Travels, III, P. I, pp. 85-6 (Hakluyt).

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¹ E. C., XI, Dg. 30 and 83, pp. 40, 66; My. Ins., pp. 42, 229.

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Provision was also made for the celebration of the car festival held in the month of Tai (January). Avasaram Aṇṇama-rasayya granted the taxes collected from the villages Śatayā-bharaṇanallūr and Suṇṇavūru for offerings in the temple of Tiruvīraṭṭāṉēśvara at Tiruvaḍi, South Arcot district, during the early morning service and for conducting the car festival in the month of Tai. The inscription which gives this information is dated only in the cyclic year Vikṛiti, but refers us to the reign of Sāḷuva Narasiṅga Rāya.²

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² 372 of 1921.

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The nobles sometimes reinstituted the car festival which for some unknown reasons had been discontinued for a long time. According to a record dated Śaka 1430 (A. D. 1518-9) of the times of Kṛishṇa Dēva Rāya, Eramāñchi Tuḷukaṇṇa Nāyaka built a car for the Kāmēśvara temple at Arragal, (mod. Āragaḷūr), Salem district, which had not been in existence subsequent to the rule of the Pāṇḍya kings. He also instituted a festival called Śivali Nāyaka and appointed a private individual with maintenance for carrying the god in procession (śri-pādam-taṅgi).³ We are also informed that a temple car, evidently the one in question, was called Naralōkagaṇḍaṉ after one of his own titles.⁴

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³ 427 of 1913.

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⁴ Ep. Report for 1914, p. 99. His three titles were Nāyaṅkārāchārya, Naralōkagaṇḍaṉ, and Vaṅginārdēvaṇa.

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Merchants too instituted a car festival. An inscription dated Śaka 1519 (A. D. 1597-8) contains the information that the sacred car of the temple of Kakōḷanātha, Śrīvaikuṇṭham tālukā, Tinnevelly district, having been damaged, a new one was made in its place by the merchants of Iḷaiyāttakuḍi and that the income of the village of Peranallūr, viz. fifty *pon* and 500 *kalam* of paddy, was set apart to meet the cost of the annual car festival.¹

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¹ 45 of 1916.

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Those who thus gave new life to the festival were usually given adequate reward. An inscription dated Śaka 145 (4) (A. D. 1532-3) informs us that Kaṇṇan, a Kaikkōḷar of Kuhaiyūr, having instituted a car festival in the temple of Kāmēśvara at Āragaḷūr, Salem district, the managers of that temple met together in the *sōpānamaṇḍapa* and decided to grant him and his descendants a house, a loom, a piece of land and some privileges in the temple.² We are told in a record dated Śaka 1473 (A. D. 1551-2) that an agreement was made between the temple authorities of the Kakōḷanātha temple at Tirukka-laikkuḍi and the merchants of Iḷaiyāttakuḍi near Kulaśēkhara-puram in Kalvāśal-nāḍu, evidently in regard to a car which the latter had built for the temple, and the honours which they were to receive at the hands of the former.³

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