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Age of the Nandas and Mauryas c12.s13.t4: Classical Sanskrit Literature and Fine Arts

Age of the Nandas and Mauryas c12.s13.t4

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Classical Sanskrit Literature and Fine Arts

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The Sanskrit versions of the *Bṛhatkathā*, the Jaina *Bṛhatkathā Kośa* of Hariṣeṇa and the Buddhistic *Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa* speak of a Subandhu as a Brahman minister of Nanda, Chandragupta and Bindusāra. In Abhinavagupta's commentary on the *Nāṭya Śāstra*, *Abhinavabhāratī*, there is more than one reference to a Subandhu as a Mahākavi who composed a unique variety of dramatic composition, emboxing one act within another, and making the characters of each preceding act the spectators of its successor; the work was called the *Vāsavadattā Nātyadhārā* or the dramatic series of Vāsavadattā¹. This Vāsavadattā is the Ujjain princess figuring in Udayana's story², with which Subandhu wove one of Bindusāra himself. It is this drama of Subandhu that Vāmana quotes in his *Kāvyālaṅkārasūtravṛtti*, where we have the suggestion of Chandragupta's son having difficulties and being helped by wise ministers like Subandhu, a circumstance which is confirmed by the *Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa* referring to Bindusāra succeeding to the throne as a boy. A verse on poet Subandhu and his composition featuring Bindusāra and Vatsarāja, found in a manuscript of the *Avantisundarī* has reference only to this Subandhu whom we may take as the minister under the last Nanda and the first two Mauryan emperors.

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¹ See IHQ. XIX, 1943, pp. 69-71.

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² Kauṭilya's *Arthaśāstra* has two references to Udayana's story; one in IX. 7, his return to power after a flight and another in XIII. 2. where the ruse of capturing one fond of hunt with the aid of an alluring elephant in the *nāgavana* reminds us of Udayana's capture by Pradyota.

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The Jain *Bṛhatkathākośa* while mentioning Subandhu along with Chāṇakya (story 143), refers to a third minister Kavi, which too may be a reminiscence of a literary figure of these times. Of the literary activities of Kātyāyana Vararuchi, we can say something definite. Patañjali's *Mahābhāshya* opens our eyes to the rich crop of classical literature produced in these times. Among literary productions mentioned by Patañjali with the author's name is a poem by Vararuchi, *Vārarucham Kāvyam* (IV. iii. 101). In Bhoja's *Śṛṅgāra Prakāśa*, a half verse in the Vasantatilakā metre from a poetic composition of Kātyāyana is quoted³.

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³ Madras Ms. Vol. I Ch. I p. 45 *tathā ca Kātyāyanaḥ : 'uttārapāya jagataḥ prapitāmahena tasmāt padāt tvamasi rajjuriva pravrittā*. This is evidently a praise of the Ganges, the celestial river that descended from the heavens, and we know from the Bṛhatkathā versions that Vararuchi was a great devotee of Gaṅgā whom he propitiated and who appeared before Vararuchi every day to make him a present of gold.

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The other Kāvyas presupposed by Patañjali must have all been produced in this period : we have thus a good number of Ākhyānas and Ākhyāyikās on the stories of Yayāti, Yavakrita, Priyaṅgu, Sumanottarā, Bhīmaratha, Vāsavadattā and the Daivāsura and Rākshosura on the wars of the Devas and the Asuras (IV. ii. 60; IV. iii. 87-8).

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Perhaps more value is to be attached to the many citations of verses and parts of verses embodying a highly evolved poetic expression and metrical finish which Patañjali makes in his *Mahābhāshya*, and which should clearly convince us of the high development of Kāvya in this period. We have specimens here of verses of erotic, lyric, panegyric and gnomic poetry; of lines belonging to a poem on the Mahābhārata theme and of metrical varieties like Anushṭubh, Upajāti, Praharshiṇī, Pramitāksharā and Vasantatilakā; the grammatical kārikās disclose even greater metrical advancement, these employing even rarer metres, Vaktra, Śālini, Vamśastha, Samānī, Vidyunmālā, Toṭaka and Dodhaka. This metrical material surely points to the existence of prosodial treatises in these times, and we may not be wrong in assigning Piṅgala's *Chhandas-sūtras* to this period. In a verse in Rājaśekhara's *Kāvyamīmāmsā* enumerating the Śastrakāras examined at Pāṭaliputra, Piṅgala figures between Pāṇini and Vyāḍi¹, and Haraprasad Śāstri has drawn attention to a tradition recorded in the *Divyāvadāna* that Bindusāra put his son Aśoka to school under Piṅgala Nāga². In the *Abhinavabhārati* of Abhinavagupta we have quotations from an anushṭubh treatise of Kātyāyana on metres, in which Kātyāyana examines the emotional and thematic appropriateness of particular metres.³

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¹ *Kāvyamīmāmsā*, GOS, p. 55.

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² *Magadhan Literature*, p. 36.

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³ *Journal of Oriental Research*, Madras vi pp. 222-3.

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Whatever the date of the present text of the *Nāṭya Śāstra* of Bharata, we know that his text incorporates within itself and cites passages and verses handed down to him from the past, *ānuvamśya*. That the histrionic art was not in a crude stage at this time, but was highly developed can be gathered not only from the *Vāsavadattā Nāṭyadhārā* of Subandhu, but also from the sure evidence of Pāṇini's sūtras (IV. iii. 110-1) which say that even so early, the actors' art had been codified into two texts of aphorisms (Naṭasūtras) by two different authors Śilālin and Kṛśāśva. More important than Patañjali's reference to Sobhanikas who show Kamsavadha and Balibandhana is his reference to the actor who feels the *rasa* which he acts *rasiko naṭaḥ* (V. ii. 59). The repeated mention in the *Arthaśāstra* of accomplished courtezans, *naṭas* and *nartakas*, supports the view that dance and drama prevailed as popular and evolved forms of art at this time. The ancillary art of music too is spoken of by Kauṭilya both in its vocal and instrumental form. *Gīta*, *vādya*, *kuśilava*, *śilpakārikāḥ*, *śilpavatyah striyaḥ* (I. 12), *ātodya* (I. 21), *naṭas*, *nartakas*, *gāyanas*, *vādana* (II. i), *pāṭhya*, *nṛtta*, *nāṭya*, *vīṇā*, *veṇu*, *mṛdaṅga*, *raṅgopajīvinīs* (II. 27) and the specific mention of *prekṣā* or dramatic show seen by the king (XIII. 2)—these in Kauṭilya picture a time and society which delighted in the arts of music, dance and drama. The fine art of painting occurs in *chitrālekhya* (I. 16) ; and the numerous references to the images of gods (*devapratimās*) give a glimpse into sculptural art of these times.

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The dramatic variety called Vīthī as described by Bharata involves a good deal of verbal ingenuity, wit and foiling of one another in repartees. That such an art of verbal skill was cultivated in these times is shown by the frequent mention by Kauṭilya of a social entertainer called *vāgjīvana* (II. 1 ; II. 27 ; III. 14).

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Not only had much poetry been produced by this time, but factors of poetic appeal and appreciation had also come to be analysed ; already in Yāska we find several classes of simile or *upamā* and several words expressive of similarity (*upamā-vāchakas*); in Pāṇini, in addition to several rules involving simile, we have the actual mention of *Upamā* and *Sāmānya-śabda*. In the chapter on the writing of *Śāsana* or a royal document, Kauṭilya enumerates and defines in his *Arthaśāstra* excellences or *guṇas* pertaining to calligraphy and literary composition ; *arthakrama* or the proper order of ideas, *sambandha* or cogent development of the theme, *paripūrṇatā* or fulness in respect of idea, expression, arguments and illustrations, these being adequate and at the same time not superfluous, *mādhurya* or sweetness and charm of words and ideas, *audārya* or dignified utterance and *spashṭatva* or the use of well-known words ; in the same context, Kauṭilya speaks of *doshas* or defects of writing and composing, *vyāghāta* or mutual contradiction, *punarukta* (redundance) and *apaśabda* (grammatical flaw).

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*Religious literature, Purāṇa, Dharma, Śrauta and Gṛhya Sūtras*

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Kauṭilya defines Veda as Trayi but immediately adds that Atharvan and the Itihāsas also are Vedas (I.3); in the subsequent chapters very large use is made of the Atharvaṇic practices of Śānti, Puṣṭi and Ābhichāra; the separate mention and juxtaposition with Itihāsa shows however that the Atharvan had not yet become completely canonised and that this was the time when it was coming into increasing prominence and acceptance. Confirmation of this may be had from the Āpastamba Dharma Sūtra which defines Veda primarily as the three Vedas but says at the end that all the popular arts and lores which are current among women and śūdras are to be brought under the Atharvan (II.11.29.11-12.) The six Vedāṅgas (Arthaśāstra I.3., I.9) and Itihāsa-Purāṇa (ib.I.5, V.6) are mentioned. That some Purāṇas had already come into being is proved also by the Āpastamba Dharma Sūtra which besides referring to Purāṇas quotes verses from Purāṇas (I.6.19.13 and II.9.23.3), the metrical imperfection of a few lines here indicating their antiquity. A Bhaviṣyat Purāṇa is expressly mentioned by Āpastamba II. 9. 24. 6. Kauṭilya refers to Itivṛtta and Purāṇa (I. 5.) and to Dharma Śāstra (I. 5 and III. 1) ; he speaks of Arthaśāstra (I. 5) and Āśrama-dharma (I. 12). These as well as the numberless references to Yajana, Prāyaścitta, Śānti, Homa etc., in the Arthaśāstra show that by this time the Dharma, Śrauta and Gṛhya Sūtras had come into being and were in full force. The Vārttikakāra Kātyāyana also knows Dharmaśāstra (I. 12. 64). According to MM. Kane, to the Nanda-Maurya age could be assigned the Dharma-sūtras of Gautama, Baudhāyana, Āpastamba, Vasiṣṭha, Viṣṇu in part, Hārīta and Śaṅkha-Likhita. Bühler also considers the Āpastamba Dharma Sūtra to have been produced in the five centuries before Christ¹, and that both Gautama and Baudhāyana were earlier than Āpastamba. These Dharma sūtras form one part of the Kalpa sūtras and deal with the duties of varṇas and āśramas. The other two parts of the Kalpa sūtras are the Śrauta and Gṛhya sūtras, and we may take it that where we have Śrauta, Gṛhya and Dharma sūtras by the same author, as for instance Āpastamba, they were all of identical authorship and formed part of one integral kalpa or manual of ritual and conduct of that school. According to the ideology of these sūtras, life is not something to be lived as the body and mind please, but a disciplined activity towards sublimation through a series of sacramental acts, Vedic and domestic rites, and personal saṃskāras from the time of conception to death. Human nature is here smelted and purified in these acts of Karman and Dharma, or as Kālidāsa puts it, the raw stone of man is ground, polished, and cut into a gem of a Dvija by these processes (*Raghuvamśa* III. 18).

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¹ Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 2, Introduction.

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