Age of the Nandas and Mauryas c12.s13.t4.13

c12.s13.t4.13

Not only had much poetry been produced by this time, but factors of poetic appeal and appreciation had also come to be analysed ; already in Yāska we find several classes of simile or *upamā* and several words expressive of similarity (*upamā-vāchakas*); in Pāṇini, in addition to several rules involving simile, we have the actual mention of *Upamā* and *Sāmānya-śabda*. In the chapter on the writing of *Śāsana* or a royal document, Kauṭilya enumerates and defines in his *Arthaśāstra* excellences or *guṇas* pertaining to calligraphy and literary composition ; *arthakrama* or the proper order of ideas, *sambandha* or cogent development of the theme, *paripūrṇatā* or fulness in respect of idea, expression, arguments and illustrations, these being adequate and at the same time not superfluous, *mādhurya* or sweetness and charm of words and ideas, *audārya* or dignified utterance and *spashṭatva* or the use of well-known words ; in the same context, Kauṭilya speaks of *doshas* or defects of writing and composing, *vyāghāta* or mutual contradiction, *punarukta* (redundance) and *apaśabda* (grammatical flaw).