Pramāṇa · Search · About · API

The Sultanate of Delhi, 711–1526 A.D. c23: 17. The Provincial Kingdoms

The Sultanate of Delhi, 711–1526 A.D. c23

Language
English

Contents

17. The Provincial Kingdoms

The Northern India

Jaunpur

c23.s1.t1.1

Within a few years of the death of Firoz Tughluq some of the provinces of the Sultanate of Delhi asserted their independence and laid the foundation of new ruling dynasties. One of the earliest to do so was Jaunpur, The town of Jaunpur was founded by Firoz Tughluq and named after his cousin, Jauna Khan alias Muhammad bin Tughluq. An eunuch, Malik Sarwar, and entitled Sultan-ush-Sharq, was its last governor who threw off allegiance to Delhi during the confusion caused by Timur's invasion and set himself up as a *de facto* king. He did not assume the royal title; but, for all practical purposes, acted as an independent ruler. His dynasty is known after his title as the Sharqi dynasty. Sarwar-ul-mulk extended his authority over Awadh and over a part of the Doab as far as the modern city of Aligarh. He also brought Tirhut and Bihar under his control. He died in 1399 and was succeeded by his adopted son, Malik Qaranphul, who assumed the title of Mubarak Shah. This man was, thus, the first member of the Sharqi dynasty to assume the title of king and to strike coins and cause the *khutba* to be read in his name. During his reign Mallu Iqbal of Delhi undertook an expedition to recover Jaunpur, but he failed to do so. The seed of enmity between Delhi and Jaunpur was, thus, sown in 1401, which led to a prolonged contest between the two ruling houses. Mubarak Shah died in 1402 and was succeeded by his younger brother, who is known to history as Ibrahim Shah.

c23.s1.t1.2

Ibrahim was the greatest king of the Sharqi dynasty. He ruled for about thirty-four years. He was a cultured prince and was a great patron of learning. He established schools and colleges and endowed them liberally from State funds. Having invited scholars and theologians from various parts of the country, he granted them subsistence allowances and extended to them State patronage in every possible manner. The result was that many scholarly works on Islamic theology and law and other subjects were produced. The city of Jaunpur was adorned by him with beautiful buildings specially mosques, the most brilliant specimen of which is the famous Atala Masjid. Under him Jaunpur evolved a distinct architecture of its own which is known by the name of the Sharqi style of architecture. The Jaunpur mosques are beautiful to look at, have no minarets of the usual type and bear traces of Hindu influence. He was also fond of music and other fine arts. Owing to its cultural and educational activities of a high order, Jaunpur earned under this king the title of ‘Shiraz of India’.

c23.s1.t1.3

During Ibrahim’s reign the relations between Jaunpur and Delhi became bitter. Mahmud Tughluq, who fled to Jaunpur from the tyranny of Mallu, was not treated as a sovereign by Ibrahim and had to satisfy his spite by taking forcible possession of the district of Kanauj which was a part of the kingdom of Jaunpur. Subsequently, Ibrahim came into conflict with Khizr Khan who had become the ruler of Delhi. In 1407, Ibrahim attempted to expel Mahmud from Kanauj which had been taken possession of by the latter after his return from Jaunpur. Ibrahim’s foreign policy was ambitious and aggressive. He invaded Bangal, but failed to conquer it. He died in 1436 and was succeeded by his son, Mahmud Shah. This ruler conquered the district of Chunar. But he failed to capture Kalpi. He invaded Delhi, but was defeated by Bahlol Lodi. He died in 1475. His son, Bhikhan, now sat on the throne under the title of Muhammad Shah. He was an unscrupulous ruler and managed to pick a quarrel with his nobles who murdered him and raised his brother, Husain Shah, to the throne. Husain Shah was the last ruler of the Sharqi dynasty. During his reign, the rivalry between Delhi and Jaunpur came to a head and a prolonged war ensued. Husain concluded in 1458 a four years’ truce with Bahlol Lodi. During this period he suppressed a rising of the zamindars in Tirhut and carried out a plundering raid into Orissa, compelling the Raja to pay him a large sum of money as indemnity. In 1466 he conducted an expedition against Gwalior, but failed to capture that fortress. Raja Man Singh, however, was obliged to pay him a heavy indemnity. Meanwhile, there was a recrudescence of hostilities between Jaunpur and Delhi. Bahlol Lodi defeated him and compelled him to take shelter in Bihar. He subjugated the whole of Jaunpur and placed his eldest son, Barbak Shah, on its throne. From his retreat in Bihar, Husain continued to embarrass the ruler of Delhi by his relentless intrigues and by fomenting rebellions among the zamindars of the Jaunpur kingdom. Sikandar Lodi, Bahlol’s successor, had, therefore, to take stern measures and to annex Jaunpur permanently to the Sultanate of Delhi. Husain died in exile in Bihar in 1500 A.D. and with his death the Sharqi ruling family came to an end. The Sharqi dynasty reigned in Jaunpur for about eighty-five years. The rule of this family fostered material prosperity and encouraged cultural and educational activities. Jaunpur attained a high place among the provincial kingdoms in the country.

Malwa

c23.s1.t2.1

The province of Malwa, which was conquered by Ala-ud-din Khalji in 1305, remained a part of the Sultanate of Delhi till 1398. Its governor, Dilawar Khan Ghuri, who was probably appointed by Firoz Tughluq, threw off his allegiance to Delhi after the invasion of Timur and became a *de facto* monarch. But, like Malik-ush-Sharq, he did not formally assume the title of king. He died in 1406 and was succeeded by his son, Alp Khan, who ascended the throne under the title of Hushang Shah. The new king was brave, valorous and full of the spirit of adventure. He took delight in aggressive warfare which continued throughout his reign. In 1422 he made a surprise attack on Orissa and brought from there a huge booty which included seventy-five elephants. Next, he invaded Kherla, occupied it and carried off its raja as a prisoner. He fought with the Sultans of Delhi, Jaunpur, Gujarat and also with the Bahamani ruler of the Dakhin. The aggressive warfare did not bring much gain to Malwa nor did it enhance the reputation of its ruler. Worn out by constant warfare, Hushang Shah died on July 6, 1435. He was succeeded by his son, Ghazi Khan, who assumed the title of Muhammad Shah. He was an utterly incompetent ruler and paid little attention to the business of the State. He was deposed by his minister, Mahmud Khan, who usurped the throne in May 1436. Mahmud assumed the title of Shah and founded a new dynasty known as the Khalji dynasty of Malwa. His authority was, however, challenged by a party of his nobles who refused to acknowledge him as their king. Ahmad Shah I of Gujarat, also, took up the cause of the late Muhammad Shah’s son; but Mahmud Khalji succeeded in overcoming the opposition of his enemies. He was a brave soldier and fought against Ahmad Shah I of Gujarat, Muhammad Shah of Delhi, Muhammad Shah III Bahamani and Rana Kumbha of Mewar. The war between him and Rana Kumbha of Mewar seems to have been indecisive, as both sides claimed success and built ‘towers of victory’. Mahmud was the ablest among the Muslim rulers of Malwa. He greatly enlarged his dominion by conquests, extended it to Satpura Range in the south, to the frontier of Gujarat in the west, to Bundelkhand in the east and to Mewar and Bundi on the north. He was recognised Sultan by the Khalifa of Egypt. He also received a mission from Sultan Abu Sa’id of that country. He died on the 1st of June, 1469. According to Farishta, “he was polite, brave, just and learned, and during his reign his subjects, Muhammadan as well as Hindus, were happy and maintained a friendly intercourse with each other. Scarcely a year passed when he did not take the field, so that his tent became his home and the field of battle his resting place. His leisure hours were devoted to hearing the histories and memoirs of the courts of different kings of the world.” His reign lasted for thirty-four years.

c23.s1.t2.2

The next ruler was Ghiyas-ud-din, who succeeded his father, Mahmud, in 1469. He was a religious-minded prince and devoted much of his time to prayers. He even refrained from liquor and the articles of food prohibited by his religion. He loved peace but his domestic life was unhappy owing to a quarrel between his sons. He was poisoned by his eldest son, Nasir-ud-din, who seized the throne in 1500. The new king was a voluptuary and a tyrant. It is said that there were 15,000 women in his harem. He was addicted to drinking too. One day, in a fit of drunkenness, he fell into a lake and was drowned in 1510. His second son ascended the throne under the title of Mahmud II. He called Medini Rai, a powerful Rajput chief of Chanderi, to crush his disloyal nobles and appointed him prime minister. The predominance of the Rajputs at the court excited the jealousy of his Muslim nobles who sought the assistance of Muzaffar Shah II of Gujarat against the powerful minister; but Medini Rai inflicted a defeat on Mahmud himself with the help of Rana Sanga. In this war with Chittor, Mahmud II was taken a prisoner. But the Rana treated him with great generosity and restored his kingdom to him. Inspite of the generous restoration by the Sisodia chief, the power and prestige of the kingdom of Malwa could not be revived and the hostility between Malwa and Mewar did not come to an end. The unwise Mahmud, who did not appreciate the Rana's act of magnanimity, led an expedition against Ratna Singh, the successor of Sanga. Rana Ratna Singh retaliated and invaded Malwa, and Mahmud was defeated. Next, Mahmud incurred the hostility of Sultan Bahadur Shah of Gujarat by giving shelter to the latter's younger brother, Chand Khan. Bahadur Shah captured Mandu on 17th March, 1531, and the independence of Malwa came to an end (1531). The kingdom of Malwa now became a part of Gujarat till it was invaded by Humayun, the second Mughul ruler of Delhi, in 1535. It remained a province of the Delhi empire under Humayun and Sher Shah. The latter appointed his commander Shujaat Khan its governor. On Shujaat Khan's death, his son, Baz Bahadur, became the governor. Baz Bahadur assumed the title of Sultan during the confusion that followed the death of Islam Shah Sur. In 1562 Baz Bahadur was defeated by Akbar and Malwa was annexed to the Mughal empire.

Gujarat

c23.s1.t3.1

The wealthy province of Gujarat was conquered by Ala-ud-din Khalji and annexed to the Sultanate of Delhi in 1297. Since that date till 1401 it remained a province of the kingdom of Delhi. In 1391 Zafar Khan, the son of a Rajput convert, was appointed its governor by Muhammad Shah Tughluq II, the youngest son of Firoz Tughluq. Taking advantage of the weakness of the central authority and the confusion caused by Timur's invasion, he set himself up as an independent ruler in 1401. He was, however, temporarily deposed by his rebellious son, Tatar Khan, who proclaimed himself king under the title of Nasir-ud-din Muhammad Shah; but he was put to death by his uncle, Shams Khan. Zafar Khan now recovered his throne and ruled up to 1411 as Sultan Muzaffar Shah. Muzaffar Shah's reign was marked by a conflict between Gujarat and Malwa. The ruler of Malwa, Husang Shah, was defeated and Muzaffar Shah captured Dhar. He died in June 1411, and was succeeded by his grandson, Ahmad Shah. The new ruler was one of the greatest Sultans of Gujarat. He is rightly regarded as the founder of the independence of that kingdom. He ruled for over thirty-one years from 1411 to 1442. He was an ambitious and enterprising prince and extended his dominions by conquest. He fought against the Sultan of Malwa and the rulers of Asirgarh, Rajasthan and other neighbouring states. Endowed with great energy and ambition, he reorganised the administration and built the modern city of Ahmadabad on the site of the old town of Asawal and transferred his capital to that place. Here he erected several stately buildings including the grand mosque which exists even today. He was a successful ruler and is celebrated in the history of the kingdom for his justice, liberality and munificence. He was, however, a religious fanatic and was intolerant towards his non-Muslim subjects. He died on August 16, 1442. The throne now passed to his eldest son, Muhammad Shah, who reigned from 1442 to 1451. Then came two weak rulers, Qutub-ud-din Ahmad and Daud. Daud was an incompetent ruler and was deposed by his nobles within a few days of his accession. The nobles now raised to the throne a grandson of Ahmad Shah, Abul Fateh Khan, who assumed the title of Mahmud Shah. He is popularly known as Mahmud Begarha.

c23.s1.t3.2

Mahmud Begarha was the greatest king of his dynasty. He was a valiant soldier, a great conqueror and a successful administrator. He was almost the mountain of a man with a long moustache and stately person having an inordinate appetite. According to a Gujarati historian of standard authority, Mahmud Begarha "added glory and lustre to the kingdom of Gujarat and was the best of all the Gujarat kings, including those who preceded, and all who succeeded him; and whether for abounding justice and generosity........for the diffusion of the laws of Islam and of Musalmans, for soundness in judgment, alike in boyhood, in manhood and in old age, for power, for valour and for victory, he was a pattern of excellence." He ruled for fifty-three years. His first work was to put down his hostile courtiers who wanted to raise his brother, Hasan Khan, to the throne. Next, he embarked on a career of conquests. He defeated the Sumra and Sodha chiefs of Kutch and conquered the forts of Jaunagarh and Champaner. He punished the pirates of Jagat (Dwarika). He took up the cause of Nizam Shah Bahamani against Mahmud Khalji of Malwa whom he defeated. The extent of the Gujarat kingdom reached its extreme limits under him. Towards the end of his reign he led an expedition, in alliance with the Sultan of Egypt, against the Portuguese who had monopolised lucrative trade in the Indian seas. The Egyptian fleet was commanded by Amir Husain, the Kurd governor of Jedda; while the Indian contingent was under the charge of Malik Ayaz. A Portuguese squadron was defeated near Chaul in 1508; but the Portuguese recovered their loss in 1509 and inflicted a crushing defeat on the allied fleet near Diu. This success enabled the Portuguese to recover their naval supremacy on the sea coast. Mahmud Begarha was obliged to grant them a site for a factory at Diu. Mahmud died in November 1511, and was succeeded by his son, Muzaffar II. The new ruler fought with the Rajputs under Medini Rai and restored Mahmud Khalji of Malwa to the throne. He died in April 1526. Then followed two brief reigns of Sikandar and Mahmud II who were incompetent rulers and ruled for a few months each. In July 1526, Bahadur Shah, another son of Muzaffar II, became king.

c23.s1.t3.3

Bahadur Shah, who ruled from 1526 to 1537, was one of the ablest rulers of his time. Like his grandfather, Mahmud Begarha, he was endowed with courage, valour and love of enterprise. Immediately after his accession, he embarked on a career of conquest. Having defeated Mahmud II of Malwa, he annexed that kingdom to Gujarat in 1531. Next, he invaded Mewar and stormed the great fortress of Chittor in 1531. But he committed the mistake of giving shelter to Humayun's rebellious cousins which involved him in a conflict with the Mughul empire. Humayun defeated him and occupied Malwa and, subsequently, drove him away from Gujarat also. But Humayun had to withdraw his troops. Bahadur now regained his kingdom and formed the project of expelling the Portuguese from Gujarat, as they had refused to give him help against Humayun. The portuguese governor, Nunho da Cunha, beguiled him on board his ship in February 1537 and had him treacherously drowned in the sea. After his death there was a series of weak rulers in Gujarat. During their reign the administration was weak and there was confusion throughout the kingdom. Taking advantage of this, Akbar, the great Mughul emperor, conquered Gujarat, and annexed it to his empire in 1572.

Bangal

c23.s1.t4.1

Bangal was conquered and brought under the Sultanate of Delhi by Ikhtiyar-ud-din Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji during the last decade of the 12th century A.D. But after his death, his successors tried to assert their independence. They were encouraged in their design, as the province was rich and was far away from Delhi, and the people, who were anxious to enjoy local autonomy, probably supported them. Balban compelled Bangal to accept the suzerainty of Delhi and appointed his son, Bughra Khan, its governor. But, after his death, Bughra asserted his independence. Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq tried to solve the problem by partitioning Bangal into three independent administrative divisions. These were Lakhanauti, Satgaon and Sonargaon. Even this did not help to prevent the Bangalis from becoming rebellious. Muhammad bin Tughluq had to take steps to assert the supremacy of Delhi. But, even before his death, the province again cut off its connection with Delhi. In 1345, Haji Iliyas undid the partition and became the ruler of united Bangal under the title of Shamsh-ud-din Iliyas Shah. He was an enterprising ruler and a great fighter. He raided Orissa and Tirhut and exacted tributes from them. He even tried to encroach upon the territory of Delhi. Firoz Tughluq was, consequently, obliged to lead an expedition to punish him. But he failed to recover Bangal. Iliyas died in 1357 after a prosperous reign which lasted for about twelve years.

c23.s1.t4.2.1

Iliyas's son, Sikandar, now became king in 1357. During his reign Firoz Tughluq again made an attempt to reduce Bangal to submission, but he failed to do so. Sikandar died in 1393, after a prosperous reign of about thirty-six years. He was succeeded by Ghiyas-ud-din Azam who was an able ruler. He is said to have been devoted to his religion and was fond of Persian literature. He established friendly relations with China. He died in 1410. His son, Saif-ud-din Hamza Shah, now became king. But he was a weak ruler. During his time Raja Ganesh, a Brahman zamindar of Bhaturia and Dinajpur, acquired ascendancy at his court, as the result of which the Sultan was relegated to the position of a nominal ruler. Hamza Shah died after a reign of one year and a few months. We are told by local historians that Raja Ganesh set himself up as an independent king. Subsequently, he abdicated in favour of his son, Jadu, who, some years after his accession, turned a Muslim and assumed the title of Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Shah. He died in 1431. Then came to the throne his son, named Shamsh-ud-din Ahmad, who reigned upto 1442. He was an unpopular ruler, and during his reign, power was usurped by turbulent nobles. After him there were two puppet rulers, one after the other, who ruled only for a brief period. The throne then passed to Nasir-ud-din, a grandson of Haji Iliyas. This ruler assumed the high-sounding title of Nasir-ud-din Abul Muzaffar Mahmud Shah.

c23.s1.t4.2.2

He reigned peacefully for seventeen years and built a few notable buildings at Gaur and a mosque at Satgaon. He died in 1460 and was succeeded by his son, Rukn-ud-din Barbak Shah, who was a good ruler. In 1461 his son, Shamsh-ud-din Yusuf Shah, became king. He was a virtuous and learned monarch. He died in 1481, and his son, Sikandar II, became king. As he was a man of defective intellect, he was deposed in favour of Jalal-ud-din Fateh Shah, a son of Nasir-ud-din Mahmud. He was murdered in 1486 by his Abyssinian slaves whose leader captured the throne and set himself up as Barbak Shah. Confusion now entered the affairs of Bangal and lasted for some time till order was restored by Indil Khan, a courtier who became king under the title of Saif-ud-din Firoz. He is said to have been an able administrator and a popular king. He died in 1489 and was succeeded by his son, Nasir-ud-din Mahmud Shah II. He was, however, murdered by an ambitious Abyssinian, named Sidi Badr, who seized the throne and assumed the title of Shamsh-ud-din Abu Nasr Muzaffar Shah. He was a tyrant. Supported by his fellow Abyssinians, he committed great oppression upon the people. The nobles rose against him and besieged him in Gaur. He died during the course of the siege. The nobles now gave the throne to Ala-ud-din Hussain Shah in 1493. This king laid the foundation of a new dynasty which ruled for about fifty years and carried out useful measures for the welfare of the people.

c23.s1.t4.2.3

One of his most important tasks was to suppress the palace guards and to expel the Abyssinians from the kingdom. In 1494 he gave shelter to Sultan Husain of Jaunpur. This brought him into conflict with Sikandar Lodi with whom he was obliged to make peace which fixed the eastern frontier of Bihar to be the boundary between the two kingdoms. Ala-ud-din Husain Shah extended the boundary of his kingdom as far as the borders of Orissa. He captured Magadha and Kamatapur in Kooch Bihar. He died in 1518 and was succeeded by his eldest son, Nasib Khan, who assumed the title of Nasir-ud-din Nusrat Shah. Like his father, he, too, was a good and successful ruler. He defeated the king of Tirhut and appointed his own governor to that territory. Nusrat was a patron of literature and art. Under his patronage the *Mahabharata* was translated into Bangali. He built the two famous mosques, Bara Sona Masjid and Qadam Rasul, at Gaur. He died in 1533 and was succeeded by his son, Ala-ud-din Firoz Shah. This king’s reign lasted for about three months. He was killed by his uncle, Ghiyas-ud-din Mahmud Shah, who proved to be the last king of the dynasty. Sher Shah drove him away from Bangal and occupied the province in 1538.

Kashmir

c23.s1.t5.1

The first Muslim Sultan of Kashmir was Shamsh-ud-din Shah who seized the throne of that country in 1339. His original name was Shah Mirza and he was an adventurer from Swat. He had taken service under the last Hindu ruler of Kashmir and had increased his power so considerably that he set aside the descendants of the Raja and himself became king. He is said to have been a wise and generous monarch. He died in 1349. His four sons, Jamshid, Ala-ud-din, Shihab-ud-din, and Qutub-ud-din, then ruled over Kashmir, one after another, for about forty-six years. After Qutub-ud-din's death his son, Sikandar, came to the throne in 1394. It was during his time that Timur invaded northern India; but, fortunately, Kashmir was saved from the terrible experience of the north-western India. Sikandar was a powerful ruler and a patron of Islamic learning. Many scholars from Persia, Arabia and Mesopotamia found a cordial welcome at his court. But he was a religious bigot and was bitterly opposed to the religion of his subjects. He persecuted the Hindus and either converted or drove away Brahmans from Kashmir, allowing only eleven families to remain there. He destroyed many temples, the most important of which was the Martand temple at Mattan. This giant work of art stands in its half-burnt and ruined condition even now, and relates, by its presence, the story of the iconoclastic zeal of the Sultan. For this fanaticism he earned the title of Sikandar the *But-shikan* or ‘Idol-breaker’. After a reign of twenty-two years and nine months he died in 1416 and was succeeded by his son, Ali Shah. His reign lasted for a few years. He was deposed by his brother, Shah Khan, who ascended the throne in June 1420, and assumed the title of Zain-ul-Abidin. Zain-ul-Abidin was the greatest Sultan of Kashmir. He was so liberal, enlightened and benevolent that he has been called ‘the Akbar of Kashmir’. He allowed the Kashmiri pandit families that had been banished by Sikandar to return to their homes. He admitted Hindu scholars to his society and abolished the hated *jizya*. He prohibited cow-slaughter and gave perfect religious freedom to all his subjects. Zain-ul-Abidin was a good scholar of Persian, Hindi and Tibetan, besides Kashmiri. He was a patron of literature and art, painting and music. He ordered the translation of the *Mahabharata* and the *Rajatarangini* into Persian. Similarly, several notable Arabic and Persian books were translated into Hindi. He took steps for the establishment of complete law and order and put down highway robbery. He reduced the burden of taxation on his subjects and reformed the currency. He regulated the prices of commodities and established his control over the market. Kashmir enjoyed extraordinary prosperity during his reign. He died towards the end of 1470 and was succeeded by his son, Haidar Shah.

c23.s1.t5.2

Haidar Shah seems to have been a fairly competent ruler. His successors, however, were weak and incompetent. The result was maladministration and confusion. Several parties sprang up and contended with one another for supremacy. In 1540 Mirza Haidar, a relative of Babur, conquered Kashmir. Though acting as a representative of Humayun, Mirza Haidar, in practice, was an independent king. In 1551 he was defeated and driven out by the Kashmiri nobles. But the quarrel between the nobles continued as before. In 1555 the Chakk tribe acquired ascendancy and one of its members became king of Kashmir. It was conquered by Akbar and annexed to the Mughul empire in 1586.

Orissa

c23.s1.t6.1

The kingdom of Orissa, which extended from the mouth of the Ganga to that of the Godavari in the south, was consolidated by Anantavarman Choda Ganga, whose reign lasted for about seventy years (*cir.* 1076-1148). He was a remarkable ruler. Besides being a valiant soldier and conqueror, he was a patron of religion and of Sanskrit and Telugu literatures. He built the famous Jagannath temple at Puri. His notable successor was Narasimha I (1238-64). He and his successor successfully repelled the Turkish invaders and protected their kingdom. After his death his dynasty began to decline. It was supplanted in or about 1434 by a new dynasty which ruled over Orissa for more than a century.

c23.s1.t6.2

The founder of this new dynasty was Kapilendra, who was a ruler of ability and courage. He successfully defended his kingdom from the aggressions of the Bahamani rulers and those of Vijayanagar. The next ruler was Purushottama (1470-97), during whose reign the kingdom began to decline and lost the southern half of its territory from the Godavari downwards. He was succeeded by his son, Prataprudra (1496-1540), who was obliged to cede a part of his territory south of the Godavari to the king of Vijayanagar. Orissa was also invaded by the Sultan of Golkunda in 1522 and Prataprudra was obliged to submit to humiliating terms. About 1441-42 A.D. Kapilendra's dynasty was supplanted by the Bhoi dynasty whose founder, Govind, belonged to the Bhoi or writer caste. The Bhoi dynasty ruled upto 1559 when it was overthrown by Mukunda Harichandana. He tried to save Orissa from Muslim invaders. He died in 1568. The kingdom of Orissa was now coveted by the Mughuls as well as by the Kararani Sultans of Bangal. In 1568 it was conquered and annexed to Bangal by Sulaiman, the king of Bangal.

Kamarupa and Assam

c23.s1.t7.1

In the early years of the thirteenth century there were a number of independent principalities in the Brahmaputra valley, the most important among which was the kingdom of Kamarupa. It was then known as the kingdom of Kamata. It was hemmed in by the Ahoms in the east and the Sultans of Bangal in the west. In the fifteenth century the Khens established their rule over Kamarupa and made Kamatapur, a few miles to the south of Kooch Bihar, their capital. The last ruler of this dynasty, named Nilambar, was overthrown by Ala-ud-din Husain Shah of Bangal in or about 1498. A short time after, Vishasinha of the Koch tribe set himself up as the ruler of Kamarupa, in 1515. The greatest Koch ruler was Nara Narayan. During his reign the kingdom of Kamata reached its nadir of greatness; but, unfortunately, there was dissension between the king and his nobles as the result of which the kingdom was divided. Nara Narayan was obliged to cede a portion of Kamarupa to his nephew, Raghudeva. The two parts of the kingdom were known as Kooch Bihar and Koch Hajo respectively. The partition led to a perpetual hostility between them with the result that their neighbours, the Ahoms and the Muslims, intervened. In 1639 the western portion of Kamarupa came under the supremacy of the Muslims and the eastern portion under that of the Ahoms.

c23.s1.t7.2

In or about 1215 Assam passed under the sway of a section of the Ahoms who belonged to the Shan tribe. The dynasty thus established ruled over that province for six hundred years. In their prosperous days the Ahoms successfully prevented Kamarupa and Bangal from extending eastward; but when they conquered Kamarupa and made it a part of their kingdom, they became exposed to attacks from the Sultans of Bangal. Ala-ud-din Husain led an expedition into Assam, but he failed to conquer it. The result was enmity between the Ahoms and the Sultans of Bangal which lasted for more than thirty years. After the Sultan of Bangal had failed against the Ahoms, some local Muhammadans in Assam raised the standard of rebellion, but they, too, could not establish Muslim supremacy there. Assam and Kamarupa, thus, continued to be under the rule of the Ahoms throughout the period of the Sultanate of Delhi.

Rajasthan

c23.s1.t8.1

There were three important independent States in Rajasthan during this period. They were Mewar (modern Udaipur), Marwar and Amber.

c23.s1.t8.2

*Mewar.* The history of Mewar goes back to far off antiquity. According to Gaurishankar Hirachand Ojha, the rule of the Sisodia Guhilot family over Chittor can be traced to the 6th century A.D. Scientific research has shown that Guhilot Rajputs were the rulers of Mewar at least in the 7th century A.D. Ala-ud-din Khalji captured Chittor, the capital of Mewar, in 1303; but a portion of the State remained in the hands of the Guhilots. The capital, too, was recovered by Rana Hamir who retrieved the honour of his race and died in 1364. He was succeeded by Kshetra Singh who was the worthy son of a worthy father. He was killed in a family quarrel about 1382. Then came his son, Lakha, and, after him, Mokala who was assassinated in 1431. Mokala's successor was the famous Rana Kumbha Karan. He was one of the greatest rulers of Mewar and one of the most famous and successful sovereigns in the entire country. He was a brave soldier and first-rate general. Having increased his army and fortified his frontiers by building numerous forts, among which Kumbhalgarh is the most famous, he carried on an incessant warfare against the Sultans of Malwa and Gujarat. He built the Tower of Victory or Vijaya Stambha at Chittor in commemoration of his success against Malwa. Rana Kumbha was a great patron of learning and was himself a scholar of no mean ability. Mewar reached the zenith of its glory under Rana Sanga (1509-28) who has been described as 'the fragment of a soldier' having the marks of eighty wounds on his body from sword or lance and being crippled in one leg, one eye and one arm. Sanga was endowed with remarkable military ability. He fought successfully against Malwa, Delhi and Gujarat. His supremacy was recognised by the rulers of the other Rajput states in Rajasthan. He defeated and captured Mahmud II of Malwa and generously restored his kingdom to him. He came into conflict with Babur and was defeated in a battle with him at Khanua in 1527. But Babur shrank from the task of conquering Mewar. Akbar, too, failed to annex it. Mewar recognised the Mughul suzerainty in the time of Jahangir.

c23.s1.t8.3

***Marwar.*** The next important state in Rajasthan was Marwar, known in our day as Jodhpur. It was ruled over by the Rathors who descended from the ancient Rashtrakutas. The modern history of Marwar dates from the time of Chunda who ruled from 1394 to 1421. His successor was the famous Jodha who built the fort of Jodhpur, founded a town there and made it his capital. He built another important fort, namely, that of Mandor. His reign lasted for about fifty years, from 1438 to 1488. One of his sons, named Bika, founded the present state of Bikaner about 1464. The most important ruler of Marwar during our period was Maldeva (1532-62) under whom the power of the dynasty reached its height. Maldeva came into conflict with Sher Shah who was obliged to make peace with the Rathor king.

c23.s1.t8.4

***Ambar.*** The State of Amber, known now-a-days as Jaipur State, was ruled by the Kachhawaha Rajputs who belonged to the solar dynasty and traced their descent from Shri Ram Chandra of Ayodhya. The State of Amber was founded, according to Colonel James Tod, in the 10th century A.D. In the early days of its history, it seems to have been under the suzerainty of Mewar. It acquired some political importance in the 14th century. But during the Mughul age, Amber became the first state in Rajasthan. Its ruler, Bharmal, recognised the overlordship of Akbar in 1561.

The Southern India

Khandesh

c23.s2.t1.1

Situated in the valley of the river Tapti, Khandesh was a province of the Sultanate of Delhi till the end of Firoz Tughluq's reign. Its last governor, Malik Raja Faruqi, who was appointed by Firoz Tughluq, set himself up as an independent ruler during the period of confusion following Firoz's death. He came into clash with Muzaffar Shah I of Gujarat, but was defeated by him. He was reputed to be a kind-hearted ruler. He died on 29th April, 1399, and was succeeded by his son, Malik Nasir. He defeated his brother, Hasan, and captured the fortress of Asirgarh from its Hindu chieftain. He was, however, compelled to acknowledge the suzerainty of Ahmad Shah of Gujarat. He also suffered defeat in a battle with Ala-ud-din Ahmad of the Bahamani kingdom. After his death, which occurred in 1438, there were, one after another, two weak Sultans. In 1457 the throne of Khandesh passed to Adil Khan II who was an able and enterprising king. He brought Gondwana under his possession and reformed the administration of his kingdom. He died in 1501 and was succeeded by his brother, Daud. This ruler died in 1508. Then his son, Ghazi Khan, came to the throne, but he was poisoned within ten days of his accession. There ensued a period of confusion in Khandesh and its neighbours, the Sultans of Gulbarga and Gujarat, endeavoured to fish in troubled waters at its expense. Eventually, Adil Khan I became king of Khandesh. He was a nominee of Mahmud Begarha of Gujarat who acquired considerable influence in the internal affairs of Khandesh. Adil died in 1520. His successors were as weak as he himself was. They could not save the kingdom from the encroachments of the neighbouring rulers. Khandesh was annexed by Akbar in 1601.

The Bahamani kingdom

c23.s2.t2.1

During the reign of Muhammad bin Tughluq some of the Dakhin nobles rose in rebellion against his oppressive policy, seized the city of Daultabad and proclaimed one of themselves, named Ismail Mukh, king under the title of Nasir-ud-din Shah. Being a man of advanced age and unfit to be the ruler of a new kingdom which needed greater ability and exertion than that he could command, Nasir-ud-din resigned the throne. The nobles now chose Hasan who became king under the title of Abul Muzaffar Ala-ud-din Bahaman Shah on the 3rd August, 1347. The story, related by Farishta, that Hasan was in his early days the menial servant of a Brahman, named Gangoo, who treated him well and prophesied his rise to power, whence in gratitude he assumed the title of Bahamani, has been rejected by modern research as gossip. Hasan claimed descent from the famous Persian hero Bahaman, son of Isfandiyar, and that was why he took up the title of Bahaman Shah, and not from the name of his so-called Brahman master and benefactor.

c23.s2.t2.2

Hasan proved to be a powerful ruler. He was determined to extend the boundaries of his small principality. As the result of incessant warfare, he succeeded in extending its limits from the Wainganga river in the north to the Krishna in the south, and from Daultabad in the west to Bhongir in the east. He established an efficient administration at his capital, Gulbarga, and divided his kingdom into four provinces (*tarafs*), namely, Gulbarga, Daultabad, Barar and Bidar. Each province was under a governor who had an army and appointed his civil and military officers. Hasan died on 11th February, 1358. He was just to his co-religionists and a propagator of Islam. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Muhammad Shah I (1358-77). To this ruler belongs the credit of organising the administration of the new kingdom on a sound basis. His foreign policy was marked by hostility to the Hindu kingdoms of Vijayanagar and Warangal with whom he fought almost throughout his reign. He defeated the rulers of these States and compelled them to yield a huge war indemnity. Muhammad was fond of wine and other pleasures. He died in 1371. His son, Mujahid Shah, now became ruler. He continued his father’s policy of waging war against Vijayanagar. He besieged that city, but failed to capture it, made peace and returned to Gulbarga. A conspiracy was formed against his life as the result of which the throne passed to one of his near relatives, named Daud Khan. Daud himself was murdered in May, 1378. The nobles now raised Muhammad Shah, a grandson of Hasan, to the throne who ruled from 1378 to 1397. He was a man of peace-loving disposition and a patron of scholars. He built mosques and gathered men of learning at his court. His reign was marked by a period of peace with Vijayanagar. The last days of this monarch were embittered by intrigues of his sons who aspired to the throne. He died in April, 1397. Then followed two weak rulers whose reigns lasted for a few months each. In November, 1397, Firoz, a grandson of Hasan, seized the throne and assumed the title of Taj-ud-din Firoz Shah. His reign lasted from 1397 to 1422. He was a brave ruler and was fond of the society of shaikhs and learned men. At the same time, he was addicted to sensual pleasures and was a narrow-minded Muslim. He took up the threads of the foreign policy from his predecessors and fought three wars with Vijayanagar, the first two of which were successful. In the last war he was defeated. He fled in confusion, but was pursued. The Vijayanagar troops obtained possession of the southern and eastern districts of the Bahamani kingdom. Firoz felt humiliated and neglected his administration. After this defeat he was deposed by his brother, Ahmad, in 1422.

c23.s2.t2.3

The reign of Ahmad Shah (1422-35) is famous, for it was marked by two important events. Firstly, he transferred his capital from Gulbarga to Bidar which had a better situation and more salubrious climate. Secondly, the rivalry between the parties at his court, namely, the Dakhin party and the foreign party, became accentuated. The Dakhin party consisted of local Muslim nobles and was supported by the Africans who did not enjoy high posts in the kingdom. The other party, known as the foreign party, consisted of the Turks, the Persians, the Arabs and held important places at the court and in the provinces. The Dakhinis were jealous of them. Moreover, religious differences added to the political rivalry. The Dakhinis were Sunnis, while the foreigners were mostly Shias. Owing to the dissension at court the administration was much weakened. Ahmad Shah, nevertheless, pursued a vigorous foreign policy. In order to avenge the losses of his brother’s time, he attacked and besieged Vijayanagar. The raja was reduced to great distress and had to pay a huge indemnity. In 1424-25 Ahmad conquered Warangal and slew its ruler. The independent kingdom of Warangal, thus, came to an end. Next, Ahmad defeated Husang Shah of Malwa and inflicted great loss on him. He fought with Gujarat, too, but did not succeed. His last achievement was the victory against the chiefs of Konkan. He died in 1435.

c23.s2.t2.4

He was succeeded by his son, Ala-ud-din II (1435-54). Ala-ud-din suppressed his brother’s (Muhammad’s) rebellion and appointed him governor of the Raichur Doab where he remained loyal till the end of his life. Having overcome domestic dissension, he undertook an expedition against Konkan and reduced its chiefs to submission. He compelled the raja of Sangameshwar to give his daughter in marriage to him. Nasir Khan of Khandesh, his father-in-law, took up the cause of his daughter and invaded Barar, but was defeated. Ala-ud-din engaged himself in the traditional warfare with Vijayanagar and acquired huge booty and compelled the raja to give him tribute. Ala-ud-din founded a hospital which was handsomely endowed. He died in 1457. His successor was his eldest son, Humayun, who ruled from 1457 to 1461. He was a tyrant and was known as *zalim*. He died in 1461. Then came to the throne Nizam Shah, a minor son of Humayun. The queen mother, Maqdum-i-Jahan, became the regent. Taking advantage of the minority of the ruler, the rulers of Orissa and Telingana invaded the Bahamani kingdom, but they were repelled. Then Mahmud Khalji of Malwa came on the scene. He invaded Nizam Shah’s country; but owing to the intervention of Mahmud Begarha of Gujarat, he had to retire. The boy king died in 1463, and was succeeded by his brother, named Muhammad. He assumed the title of Muhammad Shah III (1563-82). Like other rulers of his dynasty, he was fond of drink and debauchery. The administration was carried on by his famous minister, Mahmud Gawan, who was given the title of Khwaja Jahan. This prime minister served the Bahamani kingdom with devotion and loyalty. He undertook a number of successful military operations and extended the boundaries of his master’s kingdom. His first work was to subdue the Hindu rajas of Konkan. He captured several forts. He compelled the raja of Sangameshwar to surrender the fortress of Khalna. He also conquered Goa which was one of the best parts of the Vijayanagar empire. One of his assistants seized the forts of Rajamundry and Kondavir. The most important military campaign was, however, against Vijayanagar. The raja was defeated and an immense booty fell into the hands of the victors. An expedition was undertaken against Orissa, from where a large booty, including some elephants, was brought to Bidar. But the Bahamani kingdom suffered from a terrible famine for want of rains, which lasted for two years. This calamity was followed by another, namely, the assassination of the prime minister, Mahmud Gawan. Muhammad Shah III, in his drunken mood, ordered the prime minister to be put to death, at the instigation of the Dakhini nobles who were jealous of his power and influence. They produced a forged letter before the Sultan and made him believe that Mahmud Gawan was in treasonable correspondence with the ruler of Vijayanagar. Mahmud Gawan was put to death on 5th April, 1481. This prime minister was a foreigner and had served the Bahamani kingdom during three successive reigns with ability and loyalty. He was a learned scholar and was fond of the society of learned men. He built a magnificent college at Bidar where he had collected a large number of extremely valuable books. His private life was simple and free from defects; but, like other high-placed nobles of his time, he was religious bigot and persecuted the Hindus and their religion. With his death “departed all the cohesion and power of the Bahamani kingdom.” The administration became weak. The drunken Sultan, Muhammad III, followed his prime minister and died on 22nd March, 1482.

c23.s2.t2.5

He was succeeded by Mahmud Shah, his younger son, who was devoid of ability and character. The quarrel between the Dakhini and the foreign nobles continued. Rival nobles and governors cared for their own interests as against the interests of the State. They seized power and asserted their independence. The kingdom was reduced in size and Mahmud's authority remained confined to a small area around the capital. On Mahmud's death he had three successors, one after another, who, like him, were mere puppets in the hands of Qasim Barid-ul-mamalik and, after his death, in those of his son, Amir Ali Barid. The last ruler of this dynasty was Kalimullah Shah. With his death, in 1527, the Bahamani kingdom came to an end. On its ruins sprang five independent kingdoms. They were: (1) The Adilshahi kingdom of Bijapur, (2) The Nizamshahi kingdom of Ahmadnagar, (3) The Imadshahi kingdom of Barar, (4) The Qutubshahi kingdom of Golkunda, and (5) The Baridshahi kingdom of Bidar.

c23.s2.t2.6

The Bahamani kingdom lasted for over a hundred and seventy-five years during which period the dynasty had eighteen kings. The history of the kingdom is full of intrigues, civil wars and constant struggle with its neighbours. Of the eighteen kings of the dynasty, five were murdered, three were deposed, two were blinded and two died of intemperance. We are told by a Russian traveller, named Athanasius Nikitin, who visited the Bahamani kingdom in 1417, that the country was populous, but the mass of the people were very poor. The nobles, on the other hand, were extremely rich and lived in luxury. Whenever a nobleman went out he was preceded by twenty horsemen and followed by three hundred soldiers on horseback and five hundred on foot and by a number of other people, such as, torch-bearers and musicians. But the lot of the common people was miserable.

The five kingdoms of the Dakhin

c23.s2.t3.1

*Bijapur.* The most important of the States which arose on the ruins of the Bahamani kingdom was Bijapur. It was founded by Yusuf Adil Shah and is, therefore, known as the Adilshahi kingdom of Bijapur. In his early days, he was known as a Georgian slave who was purchased by Mahmud Gawan. But, according to Farishta, he was the second son of Sultan Murad II of Turkey from where he had fled to save himself from his elder brother. Be that as it may, Yusuf Adil Khan was possessed of great ability and strength of character and rose to prominence in the service of Mahmud Gawan.

c23.s2.t3.2

When he set himself up as an independent king of Bijapur in 1489-90, he proved to be a just and vigorous ruler. Though he had some preference for the Shia sect, he granted toleration to all his subjects and employing Hindus in government service. His administration was marked by justice and humanity, and his court was thronged by scholars from Persia, Turkistan and other Central Asian countries. His four immediate successors were not as able as he, and their reigns were marked by intrigues and war. The sixth ruler, Ibrahim Adil Shah II (1579-1626), was a tolerant and wise king. According to Meadows Taylor, "He was the greatest of all the kings of the Adilshahi dynasty and, in most respects, except its founder, the most able and popular." He annexed the kingdom of Bidar to Bijapur in 1618-19. Bijapur now came into contact with the Mughul Emperor Shah Jahan in the time of his successor, Mahmud Adil Shah. It was annexed by Aurangzeb in 1686.

c23.s2.t3.3

*Golkunda.* Golkunda comprised the old Hindu kingdom of Warangal. Its founder was Qutub Shah, a Turki officer of the Bahamani kingdom. During the reign of Mahmud Shah Bahamani he was the governor of Telingana. He declared his independence in 1512 or 1513. He ruled upto 1543 and was succeeded by his son, Jamshid. During the reign of its third king, Ibrahim, Golkunda came into conflict with Vijayanagar. After Ibrahim's death the administration of Golkunda fell into decay owing to the weakness of its later rulers. It was annexed by Aurangzeb in 1687.

c23.s2.t3.4

*Ahmadnagar.* The kingdom of Ahmadnagar was founded by Malik Ahmad whose father, Nizam-ul-mulk Bahri, was a converted Hindu and prime minister of the Bahamani kingdom. In 1490 Malik Ahmad, who was governor of Junar, declared himself independent. He founded the city of Ahmadnagar and transferred his capital to that place. He captured Daultabad in 1499. He died in 1508 and was succeeded by his son, Burhan-i-Nizam Shah. The third ruler of the dynasty, Husain Shah, joined the Muslim confederacy against Vijayanagar in 1565. The later rulers of this kingdom were weak. The kingdom was over-run and its ruler defeated by Akbar in 1600 and compelled to become a vassal. It was finally annexed to the Mughul empire in 1636.

c23.s2.t3.5

*Bidar.* After the governors of the Bahamani kingdom had become independent, a small portion of it survived It was held by the Barids. In 1526 or 1527 Amir Ali Barid removed the puppet Bahamani Sultan and set himself up as an independent ruler of Bidar. His dynasty became known as the Baridshahi dynasty of Bidar. In 1618-19 it was annexed by Bijapur.

c23.s2.t3.6

*Barar.* The founder of this kingdom was Fateh-ullah Imad Shah who asserted his independence in 1490. The kingdom became known from his title as the Imadshahi kingdom of Barar. It was conquered and annexed by Ahmadnagar in 1574.

c23.s2.t3.7

Of the above five kingdoms, two, namely Bijapur and Golkunda, produced some good rulers. All the five states had a long quarrel with the Hindu empire of Vijayanagar. Ultimately, they combined together and defeated the ruler of Vijayanagar at Talikota in 1565. They quarrelled among themselves also and hampered peace and prosperity in the Dakhin.

The Vijayanagar Empire

c23.s2.t4.1

*Origin.* The empire of Vijayanagar came into existence during the confusion of Muhammad bin Tughluq's reign. There are several theories about its origin and the controversy has not as yet come to an end. It is, however, definite that the empire was founded in 1336 by Harihara and Bukka, two of the five sons of Sangama, who were originally in the service of the Hoysala king, Vir Ballala III, and were responsible for organising resistance against the encroachment of the Sultan of Delhi. The city of Anegundi, on the southern bank of the Tungabhadra, which formed the nucleus of the empire, was probably founded by Vir Ballala III about the year 1336. On the death of Vir Ballala III's son and successor, Virupaksha Ballala, in 1346, Harihara and Bukka found themselves in possession of the territory that had belonged to the Hoysala kingdom. They made Vijayanagar, on the southern bank of the Tungabhadra, their capital. The town, probably, owes its birth to Vir Ballala III; but, after it was made the seat of a new government, it must have been greatly improved by Harihara and Bukka. The founders seem to have been greatly inspired and aided by the celebrated scholar and saint, Madhava Vidyaranya and his equally famous brother, Sayana, a commentator of the holy *Vedas*.

First 37 of 76 passages. Read on

Cites (9)