Cunningham's Ancient Geography of India c16.20

c16.20

J. A. S. B.—Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. J. B. B. R. A. S.—Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. J. R. A. S.—Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Kûrmavibhâga—बृहत्संहिता XIV.; Utpala's Com. on it gives quotations from पराशर; मार्कण्डेय LVIII. M. Bh. Mahâ Bh. } —Mahâ Bhârata. Matsya—Matsya Purâna. (Bangabâsî Press, Calcutta, Original Edition in Devanâgarî). Mâr—Mârkndeya Purâna (Pargiter's), Asiatic Society of Bengal's publication. Periplus.—Schoff's translation. Ptolemy—M'Crindle's translation of Ptolemy's Geography. Raichowdhury's P.H.A.I.—Political History of Ancient India by Hem Chandra Raichowdhury. (Calcutta University Publication). Sewell's List—Sewell's List of antiquities in Madras Presidency. (Arch. Surv.). Vâyu—Vâyu Purâna (Asiatic Society of Bengal). Y. Ch.—Yuan Chwang (Houen Tsiang) ; Watters' translation of his travels has been referred to The *fraternities* of the Middle Ages, which were so numerous and so varied in their objects, were not all of the same origin. Some were religious, some social, some charitable, and some industrial. The religious guilds, or *gilds*, as they were often called, were associations of laymen for the purpose of performing religious duties, such as the maintenance of a chaplain, the celebration of masses, or the support of a hospital. The social guilds were formed for the purpose of mutual aid and good fellowship, and often included in their objects the relief of the poor, the sick, and the aged. The charitable guilds were established for the purpose of supporting hospitals, almshouses, and other institutions of mercy. The industrial guilds, or *craft guilds*, were associations of men engaged in the same trade or industry, and were formed for the purpose of regulating the trade, protecting the interests of the members, and maintaining the quality of their work.