Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c6.s1.t3: Personalities

Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c6.s1.t3

Language: English

Personalities

Zhen Luan was a Chinese mathematician from Wuji, a county in present day Hebei Province in the Northern Zhou of the Southern and Northern Dynasties. His dates of birth and death are unknown. Zhen Luan was a military officer and a governor in Hanzhong city before and after the middle of 6^th century CE. He was a Buddhist and good at arithmetic. He wrote three books on *Theory Against Taoism*, two books on *Five Classics of Arithmetics*, five books on *Five Cao Arithmetics*, two books on *Seven Luminaries of Calendar Art*, nine books on *Nine Chapters of Mathematics Art*, one book on the *Notes of Zhoubi Mathematics Art* etc. The name of the books that Zhen Luan noted are three books of Xia Houyang Mathematics Art and *Zhang Qiujian Mathematics Art*; three books of *Sun-Tzu Mathematics*; one book of the *Summary of Mathematics*; and one book of *Three Kinds of Mathematics*. He developed the Tianhe Calender which was implemented in 566 CE, the year of Tianhe in Northern Zhou and was used for the next 12 years.

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In the fifth year of Tianhe ie 570 CE, Zhen Luan was ordered by the Emperor Wu to learn Buddhism and Taoism in detail to confirm their length and determine their true and fictional portions. This is the primary content of his book, *Theory against Taoism*. Because Zhen Luan was a Buddhist, he was seriously against all kinds of points of Taoism and in 36 articles of the book, he referred to some of India's universe/cosmos theories, such as inexorable doom, universe of 1,000,000,000 universes and trayastrimsa.

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A picture of the book, 'Legacy of the Record of the technique of counting', an ancient block-printed edition of Mao Jin Ji of the Chongzhen reign period of the Ming Dynasty.

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The *Summary of Mathematics* was written by Xuyue in Han dynasty and is noted by Zhen Luan. Qian Baocong thought that the book was both written and noted by Zhen Luan and its authorship is inadvertently attributed to Xuyue but some other scholars believe that it was truly authored by Xuyue and noted by Zhen Luan. The writer narrates in first person that he met Liuhong when travelled to Mountain Tai and Liuhong told him that he had learned three kinds of scale system and 14 kinds of noting numbers from Tianmu whom he encountered in mountains.

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What Liuhong mentions is the three kinds of scale system. The bottom in 10 multiply 10, the middle in 10,000 multiply 10,000 and the top in number changed when there is no number. Ten multiply 10 is 100, 10 multiply 100 is 1000 and 10 multiply 1000 is 10,000 and so on. Ten thousand multiply 10,000 means 10,000 multiply 10,000 is a hundred million and then billion, a hundred billion etc. The number changes when there is no number means a hundred million, billion and a hundred billion. This so-called number changes is the same as the point 45 in *Buddhavatamsaka-Mahavaipulya-Sutra* translated by Siksananda in Tang dynasty; the article 25 of *The King of Hearts Bodhisattva Asks the Monk Named A Seng* in book 29 translated by Buddhabhadra in Eastern Jin Dynasty and the *Bodhisattva Arithmetics* in book 10 named *Never Thinking of Liberated World When All of the Elites Doing Good* translated by Tang monk Prajnaparamite Kawmira. If the *Summary of Mathematics* was truly written and noted by Zhen Luan, the way to getting involved in the arithmetics is easy for him.

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There is a sentence that reads, if you don't know how the *Ksana* rushes, how could you know peasant woman in ups and downs of time; if you don't know the small, how could you know Buddhist cosmology in the body of the *Summary of Mathematics*. In this sentence, the words *Ksana* and Buddhist cosmology are used in Buddhism, and *Ksana* hadn't been translated by its pronunciation into Buddhist *Sutra* in Xuyue's time so there is a strong evidence of it being treated as Zhen Luan's book and the fake one being written by Xuyue. Zhen Luan referred the time and length units in Lankavatara *Sutra*, four concepts of the world in *Buddhavatamsaka-Mahavaipulya-Sutra* and the small, middle and the big Buddhist cosmology when he noted the sentence.

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(*Niu Weixing*)

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Yixing

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Yixing was born in 683 CE and died in 727 CE. His common name was Zhangsui and the Buddhist name was Jingxian. He was also called Monk Yixing, Acharya Yixing, or Honored Yigong. He was a Chinese monk and astronomer in Tang dynasty. He and an Indian monk, Subhakarasimha, translated seven books of the *Great Buddhist Blessing Sutra* that is *Mahavairocana Tantra*. Besides this, Yixing wrote 20 books of the *Notes of the Great Buddhist Blessing* that is the *Notes on Mahavairocana Tantra*. Ordered by Xuanzong Emperor, he developed the Dayan calendar. Also, for calculation of auspicious and inauspicious time, four books on Buddhist tantrism are classified under Yixing's name which include one book each on *Timing Ritual*, *Another Line Method of Seven Telecom Stars*, *Methods of Protecting the Big Dipper* and *ROM: Obsidian Brahma Fire*.

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Yixing was born in a very reputed family. His great grandfather, Zhang Gongjin, had assisted Emperor Taizong Li Shimin and was involved in the Xuanwu Gate Incident. He was one of the 24 *Meritorious Statesmen of Lingyan Pavilion* but as time went by the fortune of his family declined. After his parents' death, Yixing became a monk and went to Song mountain to observe Shramana's silence. In order to avoid being called by the government, he hid in Mt Dangyang in Jingzhou, and travelled to the south. In fifth year of Kaiyuan, 717, Yixing was called into the capital by Xuanzong Emperor and translated the Indian Tantrik Classics together

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*Yixing*

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with Subhakarasimha and Vajrabodhi. In ninth year of Kaiyuan, 721, he made new calendar under the order of Xuanzong Emperor. In the 12^th^ year of Emperor Kaiyuan (724), Huangdaoyouyi was made and declared a national astronomical measurement standard. In the 15^th^ year of Kaiyuan (727), when the draft of the new calendar was made, Yixing had died. Zhangshuo and the Calendar Officer Chen Xuanjing made up the draft into 52 books and presented them to the government. In the 17ᵗʰ year of Kaiyuan, 729, the new calendar, the Dayan Calendar, came into use.

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Yixing had made a lot of innovations in the Dayan Calendar. These reflect the influence of the foreign knowledge on astronomy. Firstly, Yixing made a correct description for the uneven movement of the sun for the first time in *Few Examples of the Sun*

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[Figure: *Astronomical diagram/figure of the* *Song Dynasty on a stone tablet*]

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*Full and Empty in Dayan Calendar* and the shape of Sun in the Dayan Calendar with the maximum differential centre value calculated as 143’.29. Some scholar point that this result is almost the same as the differential center value 143’.38. Probably the latter was influenced in some ways by the Indian astronomy as mediation. Secondly, Yixing made a Tangent Table in Dayan Calendar which was treated as the first one in the history. Some scholars thought it was transformed from the Tangent Table in Jiuzhi Calendar by Yixing but some others insist that it was his own invention in the form of the Chinese aboriginal astronomy and calendar. Thirdly, while introducing the uneven movement of the *Five-Star Anniversary*, Yixing referred to the Indian calendar. He thought that every star has its specific love and hate relations when it meets good stars, it moves faster; when it meets bad ones, it moves slower. Fourthly, the *Calculating Eclipse Arithmetic* mentioned in *Few Examples of Sun Eclipse of Dayan Calendar* is corresponding with the method of calculation in Jiuzhi Calendar. Fifthly, the method of calculation of vanishing and offsetting in Dayan Calendar is obviously originated from India. For example, book five in the *Abhidharma Theory* has expressed the similar idea. Sixthly, some results in Dayan Calendar were based on the adoption of the division of 360 degree for the whole day. The *Moon* *Moving Table* is calculated starting from the farthest point of earth.

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If the influence of the India astronomy is only vaguely observed in Yixing, it cannot be denied that, the way that the idea of India Calendar or the Western Calendar he directly referred from *Mahavairocana* was used to define the terms of astronomy and calendar showed that Yixing had grasped the India calendar sufficiently. In other way, the name of the Dayan Calendar came from the way of great changing in the Confucianism classic, *Book of Change*. Yixing had read Taoist classics intensively when he was young, so we can see that Yixing had gotten the classics of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism. Also we can see the content of astrology of Taoism in his *ROM. Obsidian Brahma Fire*.

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We have no historical records of the way Yixing received the knowledge of the Indian astronomical calendar. But as both Chinese and Indian scholars had personal exchanges at that time, there must be books on astronomy coming into Tang dynasty. For example, the book 198 of *Tang Annals* recorded, Kawmira had sent ambassadors to Tang in seventh year of Kaiyuan (719), and paid in tribute an astronomy book, some secret prescriptions and foreign medicine. Further, the book 971 in *Ce Fu Yuan Gui* read that in June of the seventh year of Kaiyuan, Tuhuoluo Country had paid tribute to astronomers. After setting things right in the state, Xuanzong Emperor paid more attention to the cultural construction and amendment of the calendar was one of the great measures undertaken then.

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In sixth year of Kaiyuan, 718, Xuanzong Emperor ordered Zhaitan Xida to translate Jiuzhi Calendar. Iin seventh year of Kaiyuan, some books on astronomy came from Jibin country and astronomers from Tuhuoluo country joined them. All of these could have prepared the groundwork for the amendment of the calendar. Xuanzong Emperor thought highly of Yixing, and gave him full authority to pursue the work of amendment. Therefore, Yixing, who was proficient on ancient India language, could check up the foreign astronomy books kept in the library of royal household and conveniently consult the astronomers.

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(*Niu Wexing*)

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Dharmacandra

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Dharmacandra (652-743 CE) was an eminent monk from eastern India who came to China and disseminated Dharma in the Tang Dynasty. His abbreviated name is Damozhan which was called Fayue in Tang Dynasty and his personal deeds were recorded in the 14ᵗʰ volume of *New Directory for Buddhism in Zhenyuan Period* written by Yuanzhao. He once took a trip to central India and was deemed as a citizen of Magadha. Dharmacandra made great contributions to the cultural exchange between India and China by the transmission of ancient books and records and through translation of Buddhist scriptures and texts on Arthashastra, medical science, astrology, pictures of esoteric Buddhism and occult techniques.

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Dharmacandra has a good knowledge of Tripitaka and medical science. He used the materials according to specific conditions and travelled far and wide to disseminate dharma. In Qiuci (Kuqa in Sinkiang now), he met his apprentice, Satyacandra

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*Sanskrit text of 'Favourable Opinions' (Li lun)*

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(Zhenyue in Tang Dynasty; the surname is Bunaxian which is also called Liyan) and then devoted themselves to translation together. In the 18ᵗʰ year of Kaiyuan period (730), they were recommended to enter court by Lu Xiulin, the military governor in Anxi. In the 20ᵗʰ year of Kaiyuan period (732), they arrived in Chang'an and entered the court. There they presented the court with occult techniques, medical prescriptions, Buddhist books, medical herbs and sutras etc. In the years that followed, the translated versions of *Medical Prescriptions* and *Chinese Herbal Medicine* were published. They not only offered material objects of medical herbs but also helped translate books on medical prescriptions and Chinese herbal medicine. These medicines and books which were derived from India or the Western Regions, were a great event for exchange of Chinese and Western medicine. During the years when they stayed in Chang'an, they also translated Buddhist scriptures, such as *Prajna Paramita Heart Sutra for Ordinary Buddhist Monks*. In the 29ᵗʰ year of Kaiyuan period (741), they left Chang'an and returned to India, by way of the Shaqi, Western Liang. Unfortunately, he caught an illness halfway and died in Cakra Temple of Khotan in the second year of Tianbao Period (743). The 971ˢᵗ volume, *Wai Chen Bu – Tribute Four*, *Ce Fu Yuan Gui* recorded that Dharmacandra, the eminent monk proficient in Tripitaka, had come to offer medicine, new conjuration, various kinds of scriptures in Sanskrit, *Theory for Governing the Country*, *Astrology Records*, and *Various Prescriptions in Sanskrit*. Dharmacandra had paid tribute to the court many times. His *Theory for Governing the Country* referred to *Artha÷àstra* written by Kauñilya, a minister of Chandragupta of the Maurya Dynasty in India. The *Astrology Records* is, without any doubt, a work for astrology, while “*Various Prescriptions in Sanskrit*”, just as its name implies included books on medical prescriptions in Sanskrit. The *Incantation – Preface of Thousand-eyes and Thousand-arms Avalokiteshvara Dharani*, translated by Zhitong of Tang Dynasty recorded that Damozhantuo, a monk in Brahman of Udyana country (present-day Swat Valley, Pakistan), “translate sutras according to the orders” and offered Bodhisattva and incantation as a tribute. Damozhantuo mentioned there was actually Dharmacandra.

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(Chen Ming)

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Kasyapa

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Kasyapa Xiaowei was an astronomer who worked in the astronomy institution in the Tang Dynasty. He belonged to the family of *Kasyapa*, one of the three great Indian astronomical families that came to China in the Middle Ages. There is not much description about Kasyapa Xiaowei's deeds. After the Linde Calendar in *Old book of Tang History* narrated the method for calculating the eclipse, there were 400 words involved in the Indian method that he preached. This mainly explained that the Indian Eclipse Calculation Method calculated eclipse points according to the speed of sun and moon. This is a different method from what is recorded in Linde Calendar that calculates eclipse points using a different formula created according to shuowang (lunar) great eclipse points. Additionally, *Old book of Tang* also narrated presages about lunar eclipse, such as “the moon is wet as sweat”, it's different from Chinese astronomical narrations and compares with Indian Sanskrit astronomical documents. The *Indian Eclipse Method* recorded here is close to Vasistha Paulisa's system for calculating lunar eclipse. There is no lunar eclipse from 13 degree to 15 degree but the lunar eclipse takes place within 13 degree (12 degree 15 cents in Chinese). Vasistha Paulisa's calculation method was recorded in verse 1 through 10, chapter VI in *Five Great Siddhantas* (*Pañca Siddhanta*) by Varaha Mihira.

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There were another two Kasyapas who worked for Tang who could be identified. One is Kasyapa Ji who was an astronomical officer in Jingyuan in the Period of Zhenguan (627-649 CE). Another one is Kasyapas Zhong (or Zhi Zhong) who was a historiographer for Right General of Royal Guards and he was rewarded for dedicating an extol song to Queen Wei in the second year of *Period of Jinglong* (708 CE).

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Gautama Siddhartha

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Gautama Siddhartha was a popular Indian astronomer who came to China and joined the Tang state as the Imperial astronomer in the early period of 8^th century CE. Dates of his birth and death are unknown. As an imperial astronomer (the highest position in imperial astronomical organisation), he compiled Jiuzhi Calendar and *Kai Yuan Zhan Jing*, comprising in total of 120 volumes.

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From the epitaph of Gautama tomb explored by Xi’an Historical Relic Administrative Office in May 1977, we know about Gautama Siddhartha’s progenitor and later generations with names in the following order Gautama Yi, Gautama Luo, Gautama Siddhartha, Gautama Zhuan (the fourth son of Gautama Siddhartha). Gautama Zhuan had six sons, with the first names in order of seniority being as Sheng, Bian, Yu, Huang, Yan and Mao. When referring to Gautama’s progenitor, it said on the epitaph that he moved from central Indian region to China and then settled in Chang’an (today’s Xi’an, Shaan’xi). The epitaph also mentions that Gautama Zhuan’s great-grandfather, Gautama Yi, was an eminent monk but entered the imperial court. But from Gautama Siddhartha’s father, namely Gautama Luo on, all the four successive generations held posts of imperial astronomer, astronomical supervisor, judge etc in astronomical organisation of Tang totally for more than 100 years. At that time, people called Gautama Siddhartha as “Gautama Supervisor” and called the Indian calendar of Gautama’s family as “Gautama Calendar”. When noting *Sutra on Taking*

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Kaiyuan Zhanjing

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*Auspices by Celestial Constellations and Bodies*, Yang Jingfeng mentioned that currently there were three Indian calendars respectively – from Mahakasyapa family, Gautama family and Kumara – and stored in Court Historian Library but the calendar from Gautama family was frequently used and considered most appropriate.

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In the Gautama family, Gautama Siddhartha had made outstanding contributions to astronomy. According to the records in Volume 1 of *Kai Yuan Zhan Jing*, in Jing Yun second year (711), Emperor Ruizong of Tang, Gautama Siddhartha was ordered to hold the repair work for the armillary sphere which was built by Emperor Ruizong of Northern Wei Dynasty, which he completed in Xiantian second year (713 CE) of Emperor Xuanzong. *Old Book of Tang-Astronomical Log* recorded that Gautama Siddhartha was ordered to translate the Indian calendar Jiuzhi Calendar in Kaiyuan second year (718) of Emperor Xuanzong (refer to Article *Kai Yuan Zhan Jing*). According to textual research, Gautama Siddhartha was ordered to compile *Kai Yuan Zhan Jing* after February, Kaiyuan second year (714), and he completed the compilation before Kaiyuan 14^th Year (726). *Kai Yuan Zhan Jing* compiled by Gautama Siddhartha collected many astronomical data during ancient and mediaeval times in China. Additionally, the translation and Jiuzhi Calendar collected and recorded in Kai Yuan Zhan Jing are the Chinese Indian Calendar preserved till now.

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(Niu Weixing)

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Kumara

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Jumoluo (Kumāra) was an astronomer who worked in an astronomy institution in the Tang Dynasty. His Sanskrit name was Kumāra which means boy or prince and was one of the commonest names in India. Both the books of Tang history mentioned Jumoluo once as an appendix for recording the eclipse calculation method of Dayan calendar. The main content was to introduce the eclipse calculation method by judging the sun preached by him, which indicated that he was good at eclipse calculation method and his method could be used with Dashu. The constellation’s name *Yuche* in *Indian Astronomy Method* was preached by him and it corresponded to *Number Jianglou* in Chinese and Constellation *Yuche* was Aries. *Yuche* sounded similar to “iku” in Akkadian, and E. KUE in Sumerian of Aries. It probably provided proof that *Chinese Twelve Numbers* was the evolution of Babylon’s *Twelve Constellation*. Further, the *Jumoluo Occult Sciences at West Gate* was mentioned in the contents of *Indian Astronomy* in *General History* was probably written by Jumuoluo.

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(Zhou Liqun)

Cites (7)

Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra — Kauṭilya, Sanskrit
Laṅkāvatārasūtra — Sanskrit
Śārdūlakarṇāvadāna — Sanskrit
Abhidharmakośa — Vasubandhu, Sanskrit
Prajñāpāramitāhṛdayasūtra — Sanskrit
義淨 — Classical Chinese
Pañcasiddhāntikā — Varāhamihira, Sanskrit