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Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v2.c14.s4: D. Personalities

Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v2.c14.s4

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English

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D. Personalities

Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty

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Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty (156-87 BCE, reigned from 141-87 BCE) was an emperor of Western Han Dynasty in China. During his reign, he strengthened the centralisation of authority, established a recommendatory system for recruiting personnel resources, actively expanding his territories under his kingdom, and sent Zhang Qian to Western Regions, and facilitated the opening of the Silk Road. He made groundbreaking contribution to the economic and cultural exchange between India and China.

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Image of Emperor Wudi (Liu Che) of Han Dynasty

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Since Emperor Gaozu (ruled from 206-195 BCE) established Han Dynasty, during the reign of the Emperor Wen of Han (ruled from 180-157 BCE) and Emperor Jing of Han (ruled from 157-141 BCE), the imperial court reduced the burden of taxation, allowing people to live a life of peace and prosperity as well ensuring social stability and economic development. People’s lives improved generally, and this thus formed the first millennium since the establishment of autocratic imperial power in China. After Emperor Wu, (real name - Liu Che) ascended the throne, he promulgated a series of new policies and measures to strengthen the centralisation of authority. For example, he issued the “Kindness Order”, which meant that feudal lords were to manage their own countries, dividing the feudal lands among next generations and thus, weakening their strength. He established a small group consisting of the close ministers of the emperor, and scrapped the title of prime minister in order to consolidate the imperial power. He divided the area outside the capital into 13 states, and sent prefectural governors for strengthening the local control. He conducted monetary reforms, increased commercial tax, put salt and iron under government control, reverted the right to mint currency back under imperial control, thus enhancing the economic power of the court. He accepted Dong Zhongshu’s advice of “rejecting the various schools and honouring of the Six Confucian Classics,” ended the situation of “truth told by various teachers is different, people’s discussion is different, the hundred schools of thought have different directions of study, so the intention is also different,” thereby bringing about a unification of thought. Confucianism gradually became an orthodox thought of Chinese society. During the implementation of the new policy, Emperor Wu of Han also actively prepared to launch a massive military campaign against the alien forces from the north. From the second year of Yuanshuo (127 BCE) to fourth year of Yuanshuo (119 BCE), he sent Wei Qing and Huo Qubing to travel repeatedly to Xiongnu, and forced them to move to Mobei. He recovered the Hetao area, captured the Hexi Corridor, set up four counties in Jiuquan, Wuwei, Zhangye and Dunhuang,

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[Figure: Emperor Wudi (Liu Che) of Han Dynasty – *Records of the Dawan Biography*]

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and ordered the people from northeast China to relocate here. This not only ensured the safety of the northwest frontier but also opened the access to the interaction between the cultures of the Central plains with that of China’s Western Regions. In the fifth year of Yuanding (112 BCE), Emperor Wu led an expedition to South Vietnam with 100,000 soldiers, and defeated it the next year. Meanwhile, at the same time, he pacified the region of Yelang, and also brought back the areas of Guangdong and Guangxi to China.

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At the beginning of his rule, relying on the strong national power, Emperor Wu of Han decided to change the policy made by emperors of the early Han Dynasty to inter-marry with the northern tribes of the Xiongnu. He now decided to use military force to keep them in check, and to join forces with Dayuezhi, who were fierce enemies of the Xiongnu. In the seconf year of Jianyuan, Zhang Qian, as an envoy, travelled to the west, but was captured by the Xiongnu during his journey through Longxi. The chief of the Xiongnu planned to imprison Zhang Qian, and made him marry the Xiongnu women. However, Zhang Qian kept his moral integrity, and finally escaped. He went westward for dozens of days, and reached Dayuan (present-day Fergana Basin of Central Asia). Dayuan had yearned to go to the rich and populous Central Plains, and showing their friendliness, they led Zhang Qian to Kangju (between Balkhash Lake and Aral Sea in Central Asia). The King of Kangju also arranged for people to send him to Balkh (it is generally believed that it is Tochari, now in northern Afghanistan, and the capital is in Barge in the west of Mazar-i-Sharif). Dayuezhi was chased by Xiongnu and Uisin, having to migrate westward many times, was now settled in Balkh. Due to its fertile soil, rich products, and no alien attacks, the king of Dayuezhi gave up the idea of uniting with the Han Dynasty to fight Xiongnu.

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Zhang Qian failed to complete the mission, and after staying in Balkh for a year he chose the Nan Shan road to return to China, via the area of Qiang nationality, in order to avoid Xiongnu. Unexpectedly, the Qiang people used to pay allegiance to the Xiongnu, so Zhang Qian was again detained by them. After many years, Zhang Qian escaped by taking advantage of an internal disorder. In the third year of Yuanshuo (126 BCE), Zhang Qian returned to Chang’an, and related everything to the emperor regarding the Western Regions. Records of the ‘Grand Historian• Historical Biography of Dayuan’ and ‘History of the Han Dynasty - Biography of Zhang Qian’ both had the description offered by Zhang Qian. He said that he saw Qiong bamboo rods, Shu cloth and other products were made in Han Dynasty, but all these things were bought from Sindhu. Sindhu was in the southeast, thousands of miles away from Balkh, and had a similar custom to Balkh. The emperor and officials of Han Dynasty came to know that there was a country named Sindhu (India) in southwest China. Because the country could reach the Shu area, Zhang Qian advised Emperor Wu of Han to open the southwest road. Even though the idea was put into place, all missions were hampered for some reason or the other, and returned without any fruitful result. In the fourth year of Yuanshou (119 BCE), the Emperor Wu of Han appointed Zhang Qian as the Zhonglangjiang (an ancient official title).

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He was ordered to travel to the Western Regions again, with the purpose of bribing Uisin (Ili River basin in Xinjiang) with treasures, and making the country attack Xiongnu to achieve the goal of “breaking the right arm of Xiongnu.” The entourage included as many as 300 people, and the gifts sent were expensive. But Uisin was suffering from internal chaos, with many different opinions in its court, so Zhang Qian failed to get them to agree to his suggestion. Later, Uisin sent dozens of people including translators, guides and envoys to escort Zhang Qian back to Han Dynasty. Zhang Qian reached Chang’an in the second year of Yuanding (115 BCE), and died the following year. When Zhang Qian stayed in Uisin, he once sent his assistants to Dayuan, Kangju, Dayuezhi, Balkh, Parthian and Sindhu, and all envoys came back together with people from the country they visited, which brought the economic and cultural exchanges between countries with Han Dynasty. Zhang Qian, who travelled westward twice, opened the Silk Road from central plains to the Western Regions, allowing the Han people to get a preliminary knowledge of India, and made the pioneering contribution to the economic and cultural exchange between India and China.

Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei Dynasty

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Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei Dynasty (408-452 CE, reign during 423-452 CE) was the third emperor of Northern Wei in the Northern and Southern Dynasty periods. He had unified Northern China, and carried out the policy of abolishing Buddhism in the later period of his reign.

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Emperor Taiwu, also known as Toba Tao, was of the Xianbei nationality and a great warrior. After coming to power, he personally led the army to defeat the Rouran Khanate (a confederation of nomadic tribes on the northern borders of Inner China), which was constantly attacking the borders of his kingdom. In the second year of Shenjia (429 CE), he campaigned a second time against the Rouran Khanate and reached Kehanting. He thereafter conquered the kingdoms of Huxia, Northern Yan, Northern Liang, Shanshan, Tuyuhun etc. In the fifth year of Taiyan (439 CE), he unified Northern China, and confronted the Liusong Dynasty in the Jiangdong area, thus starting the Southern and Northern dynasties period of Chinese history. He granted high positions to many Chinese Han officials led by Cui Hao, reorganised the bureaucracy and strove for a stronger kingdom. At the beginning of his reign, Emperor Taiwu had inherited the policy of respecting Buddhism as the earlier two emperors before him, and often held discourses with the Buddhist monk Gaode about Buddhist dharma. Then with the popularity of Buddhism on one hand and weakening of the army on the other, added to which Buddhism began to absorb some elements of the Divination School which was adverse to the authority of the emperor, Taiwu under the instigation of Taoist believer Cui Hao, began to eradicate Buddhism and promoted the worship of Taoism. In the fourth year of Taiyan (438 CE), he ordered the Buddhist monks under 50 to resume a secular life and join the army. Two years later, he followed the advice of Daoist priest Kou Qianzhi to change the reign title Taiyan into Taiping Zhenjun (440-450 CE). Later, he conferred the title of Tai Shi to Kou Qianzhi, so Northern Tianshi Daoism began to flourish. In the fifth year of Taiping Zhenjun (444 CE), he issued the imperial edict to kill all monks throughout the empire and destroy the temples, statues, and sutras. Buddhist monks and enchanters who did not leave the kingdom would have been killed, and their masters would also be put to death.

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Taiwu Tuobatao Ga Cave stone inscriptions

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In March of the seventh year of Taiping Zhenjun, he made a second attempt at eradicating Buddhism and ordered to bury Buddhist monks and to destroy Buddha statues, which was a big blow to Buddhism. However, most people from upper class with the leader of Tuobahuang from Xianbei nationality were followers of Buddhism, and they secretly protected some monks and saved a lot of Buddha statues and sutras. Many Buddhist monks who kept their faith, hid their cassocks and wares, lived in the mountains, and waited for the chance to return, like the famous monk Tanyao. In the second year of Zhengping (452 CE), Emperor Taiwu was murdered by Zhongchangshi (ancient official position) Zong'ai. Tabahuang had died the year before, so his son ascended the throne with the title of Emperor Wencheng. Influenced by his father Tuobahuang, Emperor Wencheng soon ordered the restoration of Buddhism under the support of his secretary after he ascended the throne.

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(*Ge Weijun*)

Emperor Taizong of Tang Dynasty

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Emperor Taizong of Tang, whose name was Li Shimin (598-649 CE, and ruled from 626-649 CE) was the second emperor in the Tang dynasty, and also an important person in the history of exchanges

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Emperor Taizong

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between India and China. He sent envoys to India three times, thus promoting the prosperity of the India-China cultural exchange.

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Prabhakaramitra, the Tripitaka Dharma Master in India arrived in Chang'an, the capital city of Tang with Buddhist scriptures in Sanskrit in the Zhenguan first year of Tang (627 CE), after crossing the icy cold deserts and high mountains in a journey full of difficulties, travelling for five years (Continuation of Eminent Monk Biography Volume III Huize Biography). He stayed in Chang'an to translate Buddhist sutras.

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In the Zhenguan third year (629 CE), Emperor Taizong ordered Buddhist monk Prabhakaramitra, to translate Buddhist sutras in the Xingshan Temple. And in the Zhenguan sixth year, the translation work was completed, and then Emperor Taizong issued another order to transcribe each sutra into 10 copies and then had them distributed to various temples. In the same year, Prince Li Chengqian was ill, and Emperor Taizong demanded Prabhakaramitra to live in the royal palace for more than 100 days to pray for the health and recovery of the prince. In the Zhanguan seventh year, Prabhakaramitra passed away in Chang'an (Continuation of Eminent Monk Biography Volume III Huize Biography).

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Tang Records of the Western Regions

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Cave carvings related to India from the Tang Dynasty in Jilong Country of Tibet Autonomous Region in China

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Master Xuanzang started his journey in the Zhenguan first year of the reign of Emperor Taizong of Tang (627 CE) to go westward on a pilgrimage for Buddhist scriptures. He arrived in India between 628-629 CE. In 640-641 CE, he met Siladitya and returned to Chang’an in the first month of the Zhenguan 19^th year (645 CE), and on February 1, he headed to Luoyang to meet Emperor Taizong. The Emperor then asked Master Xuanzang to write *Records of the Western Regions of the Great Tang* which was finished a year and a half later. In Zhenguan 20^th year (646 CE), Master Xuanzang presided over a translation institute to translate Buddhism scriptures, and disseminate the dharma until his death in Linde 1st year of Emperor Gaozong (664 CE). Master Xuanzang’s journey to the west was during the reign of Emperor Taizong, and his work received great endorsement from Emperor Taizong, and his successor Emperor Gaozong. Emperor Taizong named Xuanzang the “Great Leader of the Dharma” in his writing, *Holy Orders*.

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Master Xuanzang made a tremendous contribution to the translation of Buddhism scriptures and establishment of schools of Buddhism. His visit to India can be viewed as the most important event in the history of India-China exchange. The admiration of Master Xuanzang for Emperor Taizong resulted in an official visit of an Indian envoy after Siladitya met Xuanzang, and it is also because of his high praise to Siladitya that Emperor Taizong sent envoys to pay a return visit to India. We can see that Xuanzang is just like a bridge connecting India and China into a whole. Later, the Tang envoys to India which include Liang Huaijing, Li Yibiao, Wang Xuance, Jiang Shiren, etc., further put Siladitya and Emperor Taizong in closer contact with each other. The *Records of the Western Regions of the Great Tang* written by Xuanzang under the order of Emperor Taizong is widely known as a wonderful book that brings the two nations closer. It also introduces in a vivid way, the industry, geography, religion and culture of India to China. The book is highly appraised by Indian history researchers even today.

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Xuanzang can be referred to as an eminent monk who opened up a new era in Chinese Buddhism and translation history, a communicator of India-China culture, and also a symbol of friendship between these nations.

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Tang Envoys’ Visit to India

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Emperor Taizong sent envoys to India three times. In 641 or 642 CE, Emperor Taizong sent an envoy to India in response to the first envoy sent by Siladitya. “Emperor Taizong ordered Liang Huaijing to hold a sceptre to pacify India.” (New Books of Tang, Volume 221 Western Regions I).

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“Emperor Taizong dispatched Hechuluoba, a military commandant to grant a heavy reward to Kawmira, and meanwhile pacify India. Hechuluoba arrived in Kawmira. The king there kneeled down to pay respect to Tang and then sent people to go with the envoy of Tang to India as a guide.” (New Books of Tang, Volume 221 Western Regions I).

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This courtesy visit to India as part of diplomatic etiquette, greatly moved Śīlāditya, who asked his people in a surprised tone, “Did mahā-cīna (China referred to in India) send envoys to our country in history?” All the people answered, “No”. So he rushed out to welcome the envoy,” (Old Books of Tang, volume 198, Xirong Nationality). Meanwhile, Śīlāditya’s friendly attitude such as kneeling down to accept the imperial edict also left a deep impression on the envoy and even Emperor Taizong. This thus remarkably propelled the official communication between India and China, and making this secondary mission to be upgraded into a prolonged official visit.

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The major purpose of the second visit ordered by Emperor Taizong was to “escort the Brahmin guests back to India,” and to “learn the method of making sugar” and “presenting gifts to Śīlāditya for his friendly attitude that he had shown towards Tang Dynasty.”

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The delegation consisted of 22 persons, including Li Yibiao, the leading envoy and Wang Xuance, the vice commissioner, along with Shi Weicai who inscribed the Dajue Temple Stone Tablet and Song Fazhi, a craftsman, etc.

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The second visit took place in March of the Lunar calendar (643 CE) and the envoy and his attendants arrived in India in December of the lunar calendar (i.e., early 644 CE).

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The visit was greatly welcomed by Śīlāditya’ and his ministers who all went to the suburb to receive the envoy of Tang and burn incense on both sides of the street, leading directly to the royal palace. Later, the Tang envoy paid a visit to various meaningful places to pay homage to Buddhism, which included the visit to the Buddha Footprints Stone (refer to the inscription on the Buddha Footprints Stone in the Nara Yakushii-ji Temple, Mount Jiufeng Inscription and Dajue Temple Stone Tablet).

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The time the envoy returned to China is claimed to be around February 11 of lunar calendar, in 645 CE (according to the inscription of the Dajue Temple Stone Tablet, Fa Yuan Zhu Lin, a Buddhism encyclopedia volume 29).

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In the first half of 647 CE, Emperor Taizong sent an envoy for the third time to India. Wang Xuance, along with his attendants which were over 30, arrived in Sitianzhu at first and received heavy gifts presented by various countries (no national chaos took place by far). Later, before they arrived in central India, they received the news of Śīlāditya's death which immediately triggered a serious rebellion. During this time, Arunasva, a treacherous minister took over the throne and sent troops to capture Wang Xuance and his attendants, and "the troops took away the gifts presented by different countries." Wang Xuance escaped at night, and then he successfully borrowed 1,200 excellent soldiers from Tubo Kingdom and more than 7000 cavalrymen from Nepāla, and Zhangqiuba, another country which also sent troops. In the end, he defeated Arunasva.

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Later, Kumāra, Emperor of Kāmarūpa sent 30,000 horses and cows as well as some bows, arrows and tassels to reward the troops, and he also presented a map and welcomed the portrait of Lao Zi with great respect. On May 20, 648 CE of lunar calendar (June 16), Wang Xuance returned to Chang'an and presented captives in front of the Chongmyo Shrine, a kind of ancient military tradition in China to show military success.

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The second time that Emperor Taizong of Tang sent an envoy to India (643-645 CE), Kumāra asked for the translation of Dao Dejing. Li Yibiao, after returning to Tang, submitted a written statement about the request to Emperor Taizong who then ordered Master Xuanzang to conduct the translation (Collection of Theories of Buddhism and Taoism in Ancient and Modern Time, volume III, Translation of Tao-te-ching by Master Heun Sang under the Order of Emperor Taizong). During the third time that Emperor Taizong sent envoys to India (between 647-648 CE), Wang Xuance brought the Sanskrit version of Dao Dejing to Janaka Kumara, and this was how the stories of Janaka Kumara rewarding soldiers, submitting maps and welcoming the portrait of Lao Zi took place.

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In Zhenguan 22ⁿᵈ year (648 CE), Wang Xuance returned to China. And he also brought with him a Brahmin necromancer, Nārāyaṇasvāmin, who claimed to be 200-year-old and had acquired the method of longevity. Emperor Taizong treated him with great respect and arranged him to live in the Jinbiao Palace to make life-prolonging drugs under the supervision and management of Cui Dunli, minister of the Ministry of War. He also sent envoys to various places to collect magic medicines and stones. Several months later, the life-prolonging drugs were produced but were not as effective as what Emperor Taizong had expected, so he sent Nārāyaṇasvāmin back. But Nārāyaṇasvāmin died in Chang'an before departure, and it's most likely that he should be held responsible for the death of Emperor Taizong. According to Records of Tang volume 52, Emperor Taizong took the 'Elixir of Life' made by an Indian monk, and died of a sudden disease soon. And this Indian monk was Nārāyaṇasvāmin.

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When making a general survey of Emperor Taizong of Tang's reign, it was noticed that communication and exchange between China and Tang was extraordinarily prosperous and unprecedentedly frequent, which sometimes took place every year or even within a year. Although the official communication between India and China are mostly recorded in history, there were many other events that may belong to ordinary people, or may not have been recorded by history or whose historical materials have been lost. The India-China exchange is closely associated with many industries such as religion, politics, economy, science and technologies, literature and art, etc., and therefore, the early stage of Tang, the period of reign of Emperor Taizong in particular, can be viewed as the heyday of the cultural exchange between the two nations.

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(*Zhang Yuan*)

Emperor Gaozong of Tang Dynasty

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Emperor Gaozong of Tang, named as Li Zhi, (628-683 CE, on the throne from 649-683 CE) was the third emperor in Tang dynasty who continued the foreign policy of his father, Emperor Taizong of Tang and greatly enhanced the India-China cultural exchange.

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As a prince, Tang Gaozong was extremely respectful towards Buddhism, especially towards the great Buddhist scholar Xuanzang. He built many grand temples for his mother, the Empress Dowager Wen De. After these temples were built, he asked Xuanzang to preach there and also requested him to continue to translate Buddhist scriptures. Buddhism remained the focus of attention during Tang Gaozong's reign.

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In the second year of Xuan Qing (657 CE), he ordered Wang Xuance to go to India to deliver Buddha's cassock and act as a deputy ambassador to Liu Renkai in this envoy. Other people in the delegation included Liu Jiabin, who was responsible to keep the records of events; He Shouyi who was in charge of writing inscriptions; Wang Xuance's son Wang Lingmin and six other persons from royal families etc. According to the Chinese inscriptions, the Tang envoy to India found engraved on stone near Jilong County in the Tibet Autonomous Region, the time of departure for this envoy was led by Wang Xuance in June of the Xian Qing third year (658 CE) of Tang Gaozong's rule, which also in all probability indicates to the time when this envoy left from Lhasa.

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*Statues of 61 courtiers at Emperor Gaozong's mausoleum*

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After reaching India on September 27 of lunar calendar of the Xianqing fifth year (660 CE), Wang Xuance built a stone tablet in the Mahabodhi Temple (Dajue Temple). On October 1st the same year, the abbot of the Mahabodhi Temple summoned a dharma assembly for Wang Xuance, and after that, Wang returned to China. In the Longshuo first year (661 CE), Wang Xuance presented usnisa sarira (Buddha parietal sarira) to the emperor.

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According to the *Records of Eminent Monks of Tang Learning Buddhism Doctrines in Western Regions·Xuanzhao Biography*, it is probably that Wang Xuance headed to India the fourth time on the Longshuo third year (663 CE). However, the possibility and details of this visit has yet to be proven by historians.

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Ammannati Collects Medicinal Herbs

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In the Yonghui sixth, Ammannati, a monk from Central India came to Changan with 1,500 volumes of Mahayana and Hinayana *Vinaya-sutra*. Emperor Gaozong arranged him to live in the Ci'en Temple. In the first year of Xianqing (656 CE), Emperor Gaozong issued an order for Ammannati to head to the Kunlun Mountain to collect various magic medicinal herbs. Ammannati went to the countries around the South Sea and received courteous treatment from the kings there who even built a temple for him to disseminate the dharma. In the Longshuo third year (663 CE), Ammannati started a return journey to the Ci'en Temple with a variety of medicinal herbs, (according to *Continuation of Eminent Monk Biography*, volume IV; *Biography of Master Heun Sang*; *Record of Śākyamuni's Teachings Compiled during the Kaiyuan Period*, volume IX; *Buddhism Theogony*, volume 39)

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Brahmin Necromancer's Visit to China

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In the Linde second year (665 CE), Emperor Gaozong issued an ordered to Xuanzhao who then went to Kasmira Kingdom (now Kashmir) to invite Necromancer Lujiayiduo (Records of Eminent Monks of Tang Learning Buddhism Doctrines in Western Regions, Volume I).

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In the Zongzhang first year (668 CE), Emperor Taizong demanded Lujiayiduo to make the lifeprolonging drug. After the drug was produced and Emperor Gaozong was ready to eat it, Hao Chujun, a minister said to him that it had never been heard that the emperor of a strong country took the medicine at random made by a small nation. Gaozong heeded to Hao Chujun's advice and did not eat this medicine, but still appointed Lujiayiduo as a general in his army.

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Besides the above interactions, during Gaozong's reign there were numerous other official and unofficial interactions between India and China, for example in the Yonghui third year (652 CE), monk Zhiguang, Huitian, etc., from the Mahabodhi Temple sent monk Fachang to China to present a letter and white cotton to Master Heun Sang. (Biography of Tripitaka Dharma Master in Da Ci'en Temple, volume 7).

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In April, Kawmira, Khebud, Samarqand, Boukhara and Tukhara sent envoys to Tang respectively.

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In May, envoys of Malava and Yufo sent envoys to present local products.

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(*Zhang Yuan*)

Empress Wu Zetian

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Wu Zetian, also known as Wu Zhao (624-705 CE, on the throne from 690-705 CE), was the only empress in the history of China. She paid special attention to Buddhist doctrines, and provided great endorsement for the translation of Buddhism scriptures, and therefore made great contributions to the cultural exchange between China and India.

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Wu Zetian laid her claim to be the empress in the Tianshou first year of Tang (690 CE) and then changed the title of her reigning dynasty into Zhou. However, since the Xianqing period of the reign of Emperor Gaozong of Tang (656-660 CE) to the Hongdao first year when Emperor Gaozong passed away, she had already headed the administration and along with Emperor Gaozong was known as one of the "Two Saints". In effect, later period of Emperor Gaozong's reign overlapped by the period of Empress Wu Zetian. Wu Zetian's reign lasted all the way down to the year of 705, not long ago before her death, and during the period of her reign, the government was functioning excellently and people were all leading a harmonious life, and the whole country was in prosperity with stable borders and a flourishing culture. Therefore, people highly praised her period as an extension of golden years of Zhenguan (the period of the reign of Emperor Taizong of Tang). As far as the Sino-India exchange is concerned, Empress Wu Zetian laid a special emphasis on Buddhism and greatly supported the translation of Buddhist scriptures, and during the period of her reign, the Sino-India exchange centered on the dissemination of dharma and translation of Buddhism scriptures, presenting a brand-new image of prosperity.

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Empress Wu Zetian

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Yijing’s Visit to West

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Yi Jing, started his journey to India in the Xianheng second year and reached the eastern India in the Xianheng fourth year by way of Srivijaya now in Indonesia. In the Xianheng 5ᵗʰ year (674 CE), Yi Jing arrived at the Nalanda Monastery. During a period of nine years ranging from the Shangyuan second year (675 CE) to Guangzhai first year (684 CE), Yi Jing had been learning Buddhism doctrines at the Nalanda Monastery. (*The Great Tang Record of Buddhist Practices Sent Home from the Southern Sea*, volume IV) Just about half a century ago when Master Xuanzang arrived at Nalanda Monastery, It seemed that he was the only one Chinese student there. However, Yi Jing met so many monks from Tang there such as Xuanzhao, Fotuodamo, Sengzhe, Huilun, Daolin, Zhihong, Wuxing etc, from which we can see that the Sino-India cultural exchange was further enhanced at that time.

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In the Chuigong first year of Tang (685 CE), Yi Jing left the Nalanda Monastery and started his journey back to China. He boarded a ship in Tamralipta (in present-day West Bengal) with more than 400 Tripitakas in Sanskrit. During the Tianshou second year, Yi Jing finished the books of *Records of Eminent Monks of Tang Learning Buddhism Doctrines in Western Regions* and *The Great Tang Record of Buddhist Practices Sent Home from the Southern Sea* and so on. On May 15ᵗʰ of lunar calendar, he sent Dajin back to Tang with two books and another 10 volumes of newly translated Buddhism scriptures and he also requested the imperial court to build a temple in the west.

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In Zhengsheng first year (695 CE), Yi Jing returned to Luoyang, where Empress Wu Zetian welcomed him outside the east gate of the city.

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Between the Wansui Dengfeng first year to Shengli second year of Tang, Yi Jing translated Avatamsaka Sutra in places like Luoyang and Siksananda. From the Shengli third year (700 CE) to Chang'an third year (703 CE), he translated Buddhism scriptures in Luoyang and Changan. During the Changan fourth year (704), he established a precept platform in Shaolin Temple and made the inscription for it by himself. (*Collection of Important Essays on Epigraphy*, volume 70, *Inscription on the Precept Platform of Shaoling Temple*) Yi Jing passed away in 713 CE.

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Yi Jing’s visit to the West was to learn *Vinaya Pitaka*. In his whole life, he translated a wide range of Buddhism scriptures which included the classics of *Mahayana*, *Hinayana* and *Vajrayana*, and the most influential are *Avatamsaka Sutra* and *Golden Light Sutra*. Moreover, he also translated the *Thousand Character Classic in Sanskrit* for people to learn Sanskrit, which was a very useful textbook for beginners of Sanskrit at that time.

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Translation of Baoyu Sutra

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The rulers of Tang all proclaimed themselves as the descendants of Lao Zi, a very famous philosopher in the spring and autumn period, and also the founder of Daoism. However, Empress Wu Zetian, who overthrew the reign of Tang and successfully established Zhou Dynasty, utilised Buddhism to enhance her authority. In July of the Tianshou first year (690 CE), Fa Ming, a monk in the Dongweiguo Temple in Luoyang created Dayun Sutra totaling four volumes and presented it to Empress Wu, saying that Empress Wu Zetian was the incarnation of Maitreya Buddha. The saying aroused great attention and interest of Empress Wu, and in October, monk Yun Xuan wrote another book as *Dayun Sutra Commentaries*. In the Changshou second year (693 CE), Empress Wu ordered Xue Huaiyi to supervise and Indian monk Bodhiruci to retranslate *Baoyu Sutra Preached by Buddha*, and in this book, the materials of promoting the rationality of women to rule the country were added. Later, Empress Wu Zetian titled herself as the Cakra Holy Spirit Emperor etc.

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Buddha Statue at Fengxian Temple in Longmen Grottoes, Luoyang, Henan, China

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Besides the above interactions, during Wu Zetian's reign there were numerous other official and unofficial interactions between India and China.

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In the Linde second year (665 CE), Empress Wu Zetian went to the Mount Tai with envoys of India, Kawmira, Wuchang etc to offer sacrifices to heaven.

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In the Tianshou second year (691 CE), five regions of India all sent envoys to Tang: Moluozhimo, emperor of the East India, Shiluoyiduo, emperor of the West India, Zhelouqibaluopo, emperor of the South India, Louqinana, emperor of the North India and Dipoxina, emperor of the central India sent envoys to Tang.

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In the Changshou second year (693 CE), North India monk Ratnacinta came to live in the Tiangong Temple of Luoyang. That same year Indian monk Huizhi translated Ode to Avalokitesvara.

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(*Zhang Yuan*)

Wang Xuance

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Wang Xuance was well-known as one of the most important persons in the India-China exchange history in 7th century CE, who served as an envoy to India several times during the reign of Emperor Taizong and Gaozong of Tang, and therefore made an extraordinary contribution to the official communication between the two nations.

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First Time to India as Envoy

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In March of lunar calendar, Zhenguan 17th year of Tang Dynasty, Emperor Taizong despatched Li Yibiao to serve as an envoy to India and Wang Xuance, leader of Huangshui County, Rongzhou as vice commissioner, who led a delegation of 20 people to escort the Indian envoy and his attendants back to India. In December of lunar calendar (ie early 644 CE) of that year, they arrived in Magadha.

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The delegation comprised 22 persons in total. The leading envoy was Li Yibiao, a commandant whose official rank was above the sixth level. Attendants include some civil officials with an official rank below the fifth level, and some military officials whose military rank reached the third level. The vice commissioner was Wang Xuance, leader of Huangshui County in Rongzhou whose official rank reached the seventh level. Moreover, there were other persons like Shi Weicai, who was once responsible for the inscription on the Dajue Temple Stone Tablet and Song Fazhi, a craftsman.

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When the envoy reached Magadha, they were warmly welcomed by the king who went to the suburbs to greet him, ordered people to burn incense on the road leading to the royal palace and kneeled down to accept the imperial edict of Tang.

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They paid a visit to the stone with the footprints of Buddha located in the Ashoka Vihara and got rubbings. Then the rubbings were brought to Japan, and in the inscription of the Nara Yakushii-ji Temple in Japan, the records of this visit can be found.

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Records of Wang Xuance's travels to India

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They even learned how to stew sugar at the Mahabodhi Temple (mahābodhi-vihāra) in Magadha, and then received an order to go to Yuezhou to supervise the production of jaggery.

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Second Time to India as Envoy

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In the Zhenguan 21st year (647 CE), Emperor Taizong sent Wang Xuance to serve as an envoy to India. Jiang Shiren was the vice commissioner. This was the second time that Wang Xuance went to India as an envoy of Tang, and also the third time that Emperor Taizong of Tang officially sent the envoy to India to pay a return visit to Siladitya.

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Wang Xuance, along with his attendants which totalled more than 30 people arrived in Sitianzhu at first, and received heavy gifts presented by various countries. Later, before they arrived in Central India, Śīlāditya was dead, thus triggering a serious rebellion during which, Arunasva, a treacherous minister usurped the throne and sent troops to capture Wang Xuance, Jiang Shiren and their attendants, and "the troops took away the gifts presented by different countries." Wang Xuance escaped at night, and then he successfully borrowed 1,200 excellent soldiers from Tubo Kingdom and more than 7,000 cavalrymen from Nepāla, and Zhangqiuba, another country which also sent troops. Later, Wang Xuance, Jiang Shiren and allied forces from other countries returned to India, put up a fearless battle in Chabo and Kapila for three days, and ended up with a great triumph with 3,000 people who participated in the rebellion beheaded and thousands drowned. However, Arunasva escaped, and he gathered soldiers again to rejoin the battle, but was suppressed and captured by Jiang Shiren. Thousands of captives were also annihilated by Jiang Shiren. The co-conspirators of Arunaśva, under the leadership of the prince and emperor’s concubines, gathered along the Qiantuowei River, and they were defeated once again by Jiang Shiren. During the battle, more than 12,000 people including emperor’s concubines, prince and others were captured, along with 30,000 domestic animals and 580 cities & towns. On May 20th, 648 of lunar calendar, Wang Xuance returned to Changan and presented the captives in front of the Chongmyo Shrine, a kind of ancient military tradition in China to show military success. Wang Xuance, shortly after he returned to Tang, presented a written statement to the Emperor in which the nature of crime committed by those Indian rebels and the punishment against them were decided.

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There are some scholars who believe that the stories of Wang Xuance defeating Arunavasa’s armies are a bit exaggerated in the Chinese history books. These accounts in the history books are in all probability of the battle fought between the armies of Nepal and Tufan who were helping Wang Xuance against Arunavasa.

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The records in both *Old Books of Tang* and *New Books of Tang* are probably not in line with the real situation. Wang Xuance borrowed troops from three countries, and the story of Wang Xuance calling for help from neighbouring countries in the two books cannot prove that he had the authority to control and direct the

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*Tang Dynasty murals, Picture of Libin*

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troops, and the possibility that the three neighbouring countries wanted to take advantage of this opportunity to invade India can’t be ruled out. According to *Old Books of Tang Volume 3, Biographic Sketches of Emperor Taizong of Tang*: “(on Zhenguan 22ⁿᵈ year), the Tubo Kingdom defeated Central India and sent envoy to Tang to present trophies and captives. The person that presented trophies and captives to Tang was not Wang Xuance but Tubo Zap, and the truth may be that the Tubo Kingdom and Nepāla joined together to launch a war against India in the name of helping Wang Xuance to put down the rebellion.”

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After Arunasva was completely defeated, Kumāra, the Emperor of Kāmarūpa sent 30,000 horses and cows as well as some bows, arrows and tassels to reward the troops, and he also presented a map and welcomed the portrait of Lao Zi with great respect.

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The second time that Emperor Taizong of Tang sent an envoy to India (643-645 CE), Kumāra asked for the translation of *Dao Dejing*. Li Yibiao, after returning to Tang (647 CE), submitted a written statement about the request to Emperor Taizong who then ordered Master Heun Sang to conduct the translation. Probably Wang Xuance brought the Sanskrit version of Dao Dejing to Janaka Kumara in this time of visit, and this was how the stories of Janaka Kumara rewarding soldiers, submitting maps and welcoming the portrait of Lao Zi took place.

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An unexpected by-product for Wang Xuance’s visit to India was that he met Nārāyaṇasvāmin, a Brahmin necromancer who claimed himself to be 200-year-old and had acquired the method of longevity. Emperor Taizong of Tang treated him with great respect and arranged for him to live in the Jinbiao Palace to make life-prolonging drugs under the supervision and management of Cui Dunli, minister of the Ministry of War. He also sent envoys to various places to collect magic medicines and stones. Several months later, the life-prolonging drugs were produced but were not as effective as what Emperor Taizong had expected, so he repatriated Nārāyaṇasvāmin. But Nārāyaṇasvāmin was dead in Chang'an before his departure, and it's most likely that he should be responsible for Emperor Taizong's death. According to *Records of Tang Volume 52*, Emperor Taizong took the Elixir of Life made by an Indian monk, and died soon of a sudden disease. And this Indian monk could be Nārāyaṇasvāmin.

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*Records of Taisho Tripitaka on 'Wang Xuance's travels to India'*

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Third Visit to India

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On the Xianqing 2ⁿᵈ year (657 CE), Emperor Gaozong of Tang ordered Wang Xuance to send Buddha's cassock to India (*Fayuan Zhulin*, a Buddhism encyclopedia edited by Shi Daoshi in early Tang Dynasty, volume 16; *Cefu Yuangui*, volume 46).

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The leading envoy of this visit was Wang Xuance, whose military rank reached the sixth level. The vice commissioner was Liu Renkai whose official position was unknown. Other attendants included Liu Jiabin responsible for history records, He Shouyi in-charge of inscription writing, six persons from respectable families, Wang Xuance's son Wang Lingmin and his nephew (probably a brother of Master Zhi Hong).

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On September 27 of lunar calendar, the Xianqing fifth year (660 CE), Wang Xuance built a stone tablet in the Mahabodhi Temple (Dajue Temple), (*Extensive Records Compiled in the Taiping Years*, volume 406). On October 1 the same year, abbot of the Mahabodhi Temple summoned a dharma assembly for Wang Xuance, and after the assembly, Wang returned to Tang. (*Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang*, volume 18; Fayuan Zhulin, a Buddhism encyclopedia edited by Shi Daoshi in the early Tang Dynasty, volume 52).

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In the Longshuo first year (661 CE), Wang Xuance presented usnisa sarira (Buddha parietal sarira) to the Emperor. (Buddhism Theogony, volume 39).

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The various journeys to India that Wang Xuance undertook during the 7ᵗʰ century CE, promoted the material and cultural exchanges between India and China, which proved the existence of an ancient route between China, Tufan and Nepal in ancient India-China interactions. During his third visit, Wang Xuance wrote 10 volumes including, *Records of visit to Central India*, *Travel records of Central India*, *Travelogue of Western Countries* etc but most of these volumes are no longer available. Some parts of the *Records of Visit to Central India* can be found in *Fa Yuan Zhu Lin*. Although these are just fragmented records, Wang Xuance's records relate to Buddhism, geography, politics, administration, art, folk customs etc.

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(Zhang Yuan)

LI Yibiao

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Li Yibiao is a very important person in the India-China exchange history during the first half of the

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*Vulture Peak in Rajgir, India*

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7ᵗʰ century. He served as a leading envoy in India for more than a year, dramatically promoting the political and cultural communications between India and China.

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In March of lunar calendar, Zhenguan 17ᵗʰ year of Tang Dynasty, Emperor Taizong dispatched Li Yibiao to serve as an envoy to India and Wang Xuance, leader of Huangshui County in Rongzhou as vice commissioner, who led a delegation of 20 people to escort the Indian envoy and his attendants back to their country. In December of lunar calendar (early 644 CE) of that year, they arrived in Magadha. Moreover, there were other persons like Shi Weicai, who was once responsible for the inscription on the Dajue Temple Stone Tablet and Song Fazhi, a craftsman. They decided to start a trip back to Tang after February 11ᵗʰ of lunar calendar, 645 CE, which was more than a year after their arrival. This was the second time that envoys sent by Emperor Taizong arrived in India, and also the most important India-China diplomatic event in the period of the reign of Emperor Taizong, which lasted for a very long time with an abundance of valuable historical materials left for later generations.

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According to volume 198 of *Old books of Tang*, and Volume 221 of *New Book of Tang*, the envoy reached the Xia kingdom presenting the king and his monks several thousand pieces of silk damask and other gifts. Li Yibiao passed through Nepāla (now Nepal) on his way to India. Narendradeva, the king of Nepāla was very pleased when he met the envoy of the Tang kingdom and took Li Yibiao to enjoy the beautiful sight of Aqipomi Pool (*Old Books of Tang*, volume 198, *Xirong Nationality*). This pool was a small hot spring having waters springing at extremely high temperatures, just as Master Heun Sang's descriptions in his *Records of the Western Regions of the Great Tang*. The pool was so small that a person could only take 20 steps to walk around it, and was hot enough to cook any thing thrown into it in a very short time. The details of the pool can be found in *Shakya Chronicles*.

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The official task for this event was to escort the envoy of Sīlāditya and his attendants back to India and show respect and friendship to India. In early 644 CE, Li Yibiao and Wang Xuance, along with their followers eventually arrived in India and were greatly welcomed by Sīlāditya and his ministers all of whom went to the outskirts of the town to receive them. Siladitya kneeled down to accept the imperial edict, and in order to display their happiness and respect to the envoy of Tang, they burnt incense on both sides of the road leading the way to the royal palace.

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Li Yibiao and Wang Xuance, along with their attendants paid a visit to the stone with the footprints of Buddha and got rubbings. The visit took place before Wang Xuance headed to Yuezhou.

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Li Yibiao, together with his attendants arrived in Rājagrha on January 27, 645 CE, and then they climbed the Mount Gṛdhrakūṭa to visit the footprints of Buddha. The envoy of Tang left inscriptions on the mountain which spoke highly of the merits of Tang and holy relic of Buddhism.

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On February 11, Zhenguan 19^th^ year of Tang, Li Yibiao, along with his attendants established a stone tablet to the west of a pagoda under a bodhi tree in Mahabodhi, and Shi Weicai, a civil official from Tang wrote the inscription on it. (*Fayuan Zhulin* Volume 29).

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This was the first time the envoy from China established a stone tablet in Mahabodhi.

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After Sīlāditya’s envoy was back in India, Emperor Taizong dispatched more than 20 people led by Wang Xuance again, together with two jaggery makers from mahābodhi-vihāra and eight monks, to go to Dongxia, a country in the Western Regions. And then they headed to Yuezhou to carry out the refinement of sugar. Three monks from mahābodhi-vihāra arrived in Chang’an first with Buddhism scriptures. The emperor gave an order to provide them food and arranged them to live in the Hongfu Temple to translate Buddhism classics like Dayan Sutra. Shortly after, a letter by Master Heun Sang came to ask them to stop the translation, and wait for the subsequent order to restart it. (*Continuation of Eminent Monk Biography*, volume IV, Biography of Master Heun Sang)

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In the Zhenguan 21^st^ year of Tang (647 CE), Li Yibiao returned to Tang and related to Emperor Taizong that he told the king of India that, “before Buddhism scriptures were introduced in China, some saints had written a number of classics which gained immense recognition among the people of different ages. If those classics could be brought to India, they would definitely be embraced deeply by the people here.” The king replied, “After you return to Tang, please translate those classics into Sanskrit. And I will read them and help to spread them. It will never be too late to promote them.” The Emperor then ordered Xuanzang to translate *Dao Dejing* into Sanskrit. Later Wang Xuance again led an envoy to India and in all probability took this translated version of *Dao Dejing* with him, which he then must have presented to King Kumara which is why there are records of how Kumara drafted soldiers into his army, maintained maps, etc.

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(*Zhang Yuan*)

Kublai Khan

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Emperor Shizu of Yuan (Ruled 1215-1294, 1260-1294) was the founder of Yuan Dynasty. During his reign, he supported the development of Buddhism, and kept the diplomatic intercourse with India.

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The Emperor Shizu, full name - Borjigin Kublai, was the grandson of Genghis Khan Borjigin Temujin, Mongolia. After his brother Borjigin Mangu (Emperor Xianzong of Yuan) ascended the throne, he once was appointed to manage the military

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*Kublai Khan*

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and political affairs of Monan area, employed Han Chinese Confucian scholars, consolidated the administration, recovered agriculture, built schools, received the support of people from upper class of north China Han population, and laid a solid social foundation for the establishment of the Yuan Dynasty. And he once made an expedition to Yunnan, and defeated Dali kingdom. In the eighth year of Xianzong (1258 CE), Mangu fought against the Southern Song Dynasty, and Kublai Khan was ordered to lead Donglu army. In September of the ninth year of Xianzong, Mangu died in Sichuan, Kublai Khan continued to siege Ezhou (present-day Wuhan, Hubei). After learning that Arigboge, his younger brother stayed to guard Mobei, he recruited soldiers arbitrarily to usurp the throne. He adopted the proposal of Han people, Hao Jing to make peace with the Southern Song Dynasty, then returned to fight for the throne. In March the following year under the support of some princes and dukes, Kublai Khan proclaimed to be the emperor in Kaiping (site is located in the north bank of Shandian River in Inner Mongolia, about around Zhenglan Banner and Duolun County area), with the reign title of Zhongtong. In August of the fifth year of Zhongtong (1264 CE), Kublai Khan changed the Yuan into Zhiyuan. In the same year, Arigboge was defeated and finally surrendered. In November of the eighth year of Zhiyuan (1271 CE), taking the meaning of “the beginning of natural law” from ‘*The Book of Changes*’, Kublai Khan changed the reign title into Dayuan. Next year, he decided Dadu (present-day Beijing) would be its capital. In the 11^th year of Zhiyuan, he ordered Bayan to make an expedition to Song Dynasty. In the 13^th year, he conquered Lin’an. In the 16^th year, he finally eliminated the remaining forces of Southern Song Dynasty left in Yashan, and completed the unification. Since then, he once sent the army to make an expedition to Japan, Annan (present-day Northern Vietnam), Champa kingdom (present-day Central Vietnam), Burma and Java, but most of them failed. After the unification of China, Kublai Khan conducted a series of policies, such as the recovery of agriculture, reduction of the burden on farmers, care for craftsmen, promotion and popularisation of education, encouragement of commercial trade, establishment of post system, and emphasis on the scientific research, which were all very beneficial to the development of society and economy.

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Picture of Kublai Khan during a hunt

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Emperor Shizu of Yuan believed in Buddhism, and his religious policy was tolerant and flexible. Early, he once participated in Shamanism rites according to Mongolian tradition, and also tried to cater to the belief of the Chinese people. He maintained a good relationship with Confucian, implemented the traditional Confucian etiquette in the imperial court, and translated the ancient Chinese classics into Mongolian. He gave the important position in financial institution to Moslem, and granted them some privileges such as tax exemption. He paid the most attention to Buddhism. Long before he ascended the throne, he had been maintaining a close relationship with Phags-pa lama (1235-1280 CE), who was the fifth generation founder of Sakya of Tibetan Buddhism. In the third year of Xianzong (1253 CE), Kublai Khan accepted the Esoteric Buddhism empowerment, and offered treasures for support. In the eighth year (1258 CE), he called monks together to debate the authenticity of Laozi Huahujing. Phags-pa lama took part in the debate, and made the Taoist priest accept defeat. In the first year of Zhongtong (1260 CE), Kublai Khan ascended the throne, and conferred the title of national master to Phags-pa lama, and granted him the jade seal, and let him lead all Buddhist monks around the country. In the first year of Zhiyuan (1264 CE), he set up the Administration of Buddhism (later Xuanzhengyuan) with the head of Phags-pa lama, which conducted the ruling of Buddhist monks and took charge of affairs in Tubo area. In the fifth year (1268 CE), Phags-pa lama completed the creation of Mongolia new script (also called Phags-pa script) on the basis of the Tibetan script. The following year, Shizu conferred another title of Royal Preceptor and Gyalwa Karmapa to Phags-pa lama. Besides Tibetan monks, Shizu also maintained constant exchanges with scholar-official monks, such as Haiyunyinjian, Zicong monk (Liu Bingzhong), Xuetingfuyu and others. Shizu also paid attention to the print and circulation of Buddhist sutras. He once ordered to delete, rectify and print the Buddhist sutras Hongfazang on the basis of the original Jinzang, and released it across the country. The famous white tower of Dashengshou Wan’an Temple (present-day Miaoying Temple in Beijing) was built during Zhiyuan years of Shizu. The architect Araniko (1244-1306 CE) from Niboluo (present-day Nepal) took charge of the construction, sculpture, smelting and casting, crafting of the imperial family. Shizu appreciated his talent, and granted him 15,000 mu of fertile farmland. For Shizu’s worship of Buddha, there were many written records. According to volume 26 of Chronicle of Clan System, among 35 years of the reign of Shizu, from the first year, he first accepted the Buddhist commandment before ascending the throne. According to the Record of Merits of Building Yongshengyuan, “Buddhism is the most flourishing at this time”.

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