Cosmography and Geography in Early Indian Literature c7.s6: 6. Medieval Writers on Cosmography and Geography

Cosmography and Geography in Early Indian Literature c7.s6

Language: English

6. Medieval Writers on Cosmography and Geography

c7.s6.1

Chapter XVII of the *Kāvyamīmāṃsā* by Rājaśekhara, who was the preceptor of the Gurjara-Pratihāra king Mahendrapāla I (c. 885-908 A.D.) and was patronised by the latter's son Mahīpāla as well as by the Kalacuri king Yuvarāja I of Tripuri, is entitled *Deśa-vibhāga*.

c7.s6.2

Rājaśekhara refers to the Puranic conception of the world consisting of seven *dvīpas* surrounded respectively by the oceans of salt-water, alcohol, etc. But he also quotes other views such as the following : 1. there are eighteen *dvīpas* and only one ocean which is the salt-sea, 2. there are only three oceans, and 3. there are only four oceans. He then enumerates the *Varṣa-parvatas* beginning with Meru and also the *varṣas* (excluding Bhadrāśva and Ketumāla which, as we have said, appear to have been later additions) after the Purāṇas. The nine divisions of the Bhārata-varṣa are next mentioned in accordance with the earlier Purāṇas though the ninth division is called Kumārī-dvīpa instead of Sāgarasaṃvṛta. These divisions are said to have been situated between the ocean in the south and Himavat in the north and to have been each unapproachable from another. The king who succeeds in conquering them is called *Samrāṭ* while one becomes a *Cakravartin* after conquering the 10,000 *yojanas* of land lying between Kumāripura (Cape Comorin) and Bindu-saras (in the Himalayas), which is the *Cakravarti-kṣetra*.

c7.s6.3

The seven *Kula-parvatas* in the Kumārī-dvīpa (Vindhya, etc.) are then mentioned and the name *Āryāvarta* is applied to the land bounded by the eastern sea, the western sea, the Himavat and the Vindhya as indicated in the *Manusmṛti*. Then the following divisions of the Kumārī-dvīpa are described.

c7.s6.4

I. Pūrva-deśa lying beyond (i.e. to the east of) Vārāṇasī: 1. janapadas—Aṅga, Kaliṅga, Kośala, Tośala, Utkala, Magadha, Mudgara, Videha, Nepāla, Puṇḍra, Prāgjyotiṣa, Tāmraliptaka, Malada (or Malajada), Mallavarttaka, Suhma, Brahmottara, etc. ; 2. mountains—Bṛhadgṛha, Lohita-giri, Cakora, Dardura, Nepāla, Kāmarūpa, etc. ; 3. rivers—Śoṇa, Lauhitya, Gaṅgā, Karatoyā, Kapiśā, etc. ; 4. products—lavalī, granthiparṇaka, aguru, drākṣā, kastūrikā, etc. It may be noted that Kaliṅga and Kośala (North or South) have been placed in the Eastern and not in the Southern or Central Division and that Prāgjyotiṣa has been likewise placed in the Eastern Division and not the Northern. Kāmarūpa, another name of Prāgjyotiṣa, has been mentioned as that of a mountain.

c7.s6.5

II. Dakṣiṇāpatha lying beyond (i.e. to the south of) Māhiṣmatī: 1. janapadas—Mahārāṣṭra, Māhiṣaka (or Māhiṣmaka), Aśmaka, Vidarbha (or Vaidarbha), Kuntala, Krathakaiśika, Sūrpāraka, Kāñcī, Kerala, Kāvera, Murala (the Muralā valley), Vanavāsaka, Siṃhala, Coḍa (or Cauḍa), Daṇḍaka, Pāṇḍya, Pallava, Gaṅga, Nāsikya, Kauṅkaṇa, Kolla-giri, Vallara (or Vellara, Vallāra, modern Bellary); 2. mountains—Vindhya-dakṣiṇāpāda, Mahendra, Malaya, Mekala, Pālamañjara, Sahya, Śrīparvata, etc. ; 3. rivers—Narmadā, Tāpī, Payoṣṇī, Godāvarī, Kāverī, Bhaimarathī, Veṇvā, Kṛṣṇaveṇā, Vañjurā, Tuṅgabhadrā, Tāmraparṇī, Utpalāvatī, Rāvaṇagaṅgā, etc. Sūrpāraka, etc., to the south of the Narmadā have been located in the South and not in the West.

c7.s6.6

III. Paścād-deśa lying beyond (i.e. to the west of) Devasabhā (Dewas near Ujjayinī): 1. janapadas—Devasabhā, Surāṣṭra, Dāseraka, Travaṇa, Bhṛgukaccha, Kacchiya, Ānarta, Arbuda, Brāhmaṇavāha, Yavana, etc. ; 2. mountains—Govardhana, Girinagara (Girnar), Devasabhā, Mālya-śikhara, Arbuda (Abu), etc. ; 3. rivers—Sarasvatī, Śvabhravatī, Vārtaghni, Mahī, Hiḍimbā (or Hiṇḍivā), etc. ; 4. products—karīra, pīlu, guggulu, kharjūra, karabha, etc.

c7.s6.7

IV. Uttarāpatha beyond (i.e. to the north-west of) Pṛthūdaka (Pehoa): 1. janapadas—Śaka, Kekaya, Vokkāṇa, Hūṇa, Vanāyuja (or Vānāyuja), Kamboja (or Kāmboja), Vāhlika, Va(Pa)hlava, Li(La)mpāka, Kulūta, Kīra, Taṅgaṇa, Tuṣāra, Turuṣka, Barbara, Hārahūra, Vahuhuka (Hukuka), Sahuḍa (Jāguḍa), Haṃsamārga, Ramaṭha, Karakaṇṭha, etc. ; 2. mountains—Himālaya, Kalinda, Indrakīla, Candr-ācala, etc. ; 3. rivers—Gaṅgā, Sindhu, Sarasvatī, Śatadru, Candrabhāgā, Yamunā, Irāvatī, Vitastā, Vipāśā, Kuhu, Devikā, etc. ; 4. products—sarala, devadāru, drākṣā, kuṅkuma, cāmara, ajina, sauvīra, srotoñjana, saindhava, vaidūrya, turaṅga, etc.

c7.s6.8

V. Madhya-deśa surrounded by the Himavat, the Vindhya, Vinaśana and Prayāga.

c7.s6.9

Certain medieval Sanskrit lexicons (such as Yādavaprakāśa’s Vaijayantī, Hemacandra’s Abhidhānacintāmaṇi, Puruṣottama’s Trikāṇḍaśeṣa, Keśava’s Kalpadrukośa, etc.)¹⁸ offer some valuable geographical information. We may first quote some of the information gathered from the Abhidhānacintāmaṇi (Ch. IV)—1. Prāgjyotiṣa=Kāmarūpa ; 2. Mālava=Avanti ; 3. Traipura=Dāhala=Caidya=Cedi ; 4. Vaṅga=Harikeliya ; 5. Aṅga with capital at Campā ; 6. Sālva=Kārakukṣīya ; 7. Maru=Daśeraka ; 8. Jālandhara=Trigarta ; 9. Tāyika=Tarjika ; 10. Kāśmīra=Mādhumata ; 11. Sārasvata=Vikarnika ; 12. Vāhīka=Ṭakka ; 13. Vālhika=Vālhika ; 14. Turuṣka=Śakhi (Śāhi) ; 15. Kārūṣa=Bṛhadgṛha ; 16. Lampāka=Muruṇḍa ; 17. Sauvīra=Kumālaka ; 18. Pratyagratha=Ahicchatra; 19. Kikaṭa=Magadha ; 20. Ugra=Kerala, or Uḍra=Utkala ; 21. Kuntala=Upagayā=Gayarājarṣipūr ; 22. Kānyakubja=Mahodaya=Kanyākubja=Gādhipura = Kauśa = Kuśasthala ; 23. Kāśī=Vārāṇasī = Vārāṇasī=Śivapuri ; 24. Sāketa=Kośalā=Ayodhyā ; 25. Videhā=Mithilā ; 26. Tripurī=Cedinagari ; 27. Kauśāmbi=Vatsapattana ; 28. Ujjayinī = Viśālā=Avanti=Puṣpakaraṇḍinī (having in it a garden called Puṣpakaraṇḍa); 29. Pāṭaliputra=Kusumapura ; 30. Campā=Mālini=Lomapādapūr=Karṇapūr ; 31. Devīkoṭa=Umāvana = Koṭivarṣa = Bāṇapura = Śonitapura ; 32. Mathurā = Madhupaghna = Madhurā ; 33. Gajāhvaya = Hāstinapura = Hastinīpura = Hastināpura ; 34. Tāmalipta=Dāmalipta = Tāmalipti = Tamālini = Stambapūr=Viṣṇugṛha ; 35. Vidarbhā=Kuṇḍina ; 36. Dvāravatī or Dvārāvatī = Dvārikā ; 37. Niṣadhā=Nalapūr ; 38. Krauñca=Kruñca ; 39. Malaya=Āṣāḍha=Dakṣiṇ-ācala; 40. Mālyavat=Prasravaṇa ; 41. Vindhya=Jalabālaka ; 42. Śatruñjaya=Vimal-ādri ; 43. Indrakīla=Mandara ; 44. Suvela=Trimukuṭa=Trikūṭa=Trikakud ; 45. Ujjayanta=Raivataka ; 46. Sudāru=Pāriyātrika ; 47. Lokāloka=Cakravāla ; 48. Meru=Karṇik-ācala=Ratnasānu=Sumeru=Svar=Svargin = Kāñcana-giri ; 49. Gaṅgā = Ṛṣikulyā, etc. ; 50. Yamunā=Yamabhaginī=Kālindrī=Sūryajā=Yami ; 51. Revā=Indujā=Pūrvagaṅgā=Narmadā=Mekalādrijā ; 52. Godā=Godāvarī. 53. Tāpī=Tapanī=Tapanātmajā ; 54. Śutudri=Śatadru ; 55. Kāverī=Ardhajāhnavī ; 56. Karatoyā=Sadānīrā ; 57. Candrabhāgā=Candrikā ; 58. Vāsiṣṭhī=Gomatī ; 59. Brahmaputri=Sarasvatī 60. Vipāś=Vipāśā ; 61. Arjuni=Bāhudā=Saitavāhinī ; 62. Hiraṇyabāhu=Śoṇa=Hiraṇyavaha ; 63. Murundalā=Muralā ; 64. Carmaṇvatī=Rantinadī ; etc.

c7.s6.10

¹⁸ The numbering of the footnote is not present in the text, but the reference mark "18" appears in the text as "drukośa, etc.)18".

c7.s6.11

28. The dates of the authors are as follows : (1) Yādavaprakāśa—11th century ; (2) Hemacandra—12th century ; (3) Puruṣottama—12th century ; and (4) Keśava—16th century. Some of these works, e.g. the Vaijayantī, suffer considerably from corrupt readings.

c7.s6.12

Some additional information in the *Trikāṇḍaśeṣa* may be summarised as follows—

c7.s6.13

1. Puṇḍra=Varendri in the Gauḍa country; 2. Tirabhukti=Nicchavi (Licchavi)=Videha ; 3. Kāśmīra=Kira=Śāstraśilpin ; 4. Ṭaska (Ṭakka)=Vāhlika (Vāhīka)=Trigartaka ; 5. Karuṣa=Bṛhadguha ; 6. Yadu=Daśārha=Sātvata=Kukura ; 7. Oḍra=Utkala ; 8. Velākūla = Tāmalipta = Tāmalipti=Tamālikā ; 9. Sāketa = Ayodhyā = Uttarakośalā ; 10. Nāgāhva = Hastināpura=Gajāhva=Hāstina ; 11. Śrāvastī=Dharmapattana ; 12. Kurukṣetra=Vinaśana ; 13. Prājāpatya=Prayāga;14. Dvārakā=Vanamālini=Dvāravati=Abdhinagarī; 15. Videha=Mithilā ; 16. Jitvari=Tapasthalī=Varāṇasī=Tirtharājī ; 17. Puṣpapura=Pāṭaliputra ; 18. Devikoṭa=Bāṇapura=Koṭivarṣa=Uṣāvana=Śoṇitapura ; 19. Candanādri=Malaya ; 20. Kauñca=Krauñca=Mālyavat ; etc.

c7.s6.14

The *Vaijayantī* (Chaps. III-IV) offer some cosmographical and geographical details of the Puranic type²⁹ and others of the nature of different names applied to the same people, place, etc. Some of these are noted below. There are :

c7.s6.15

²⁹ Cf. 1. Bhadrāśva=Pūrva-gandhika, 2. Ketumāla=Apara-gandhika, 3. Jambudvīpa=Kumārī in which Bhārata, etc., are situated, 4. Manth-odadhi=Kṣīrādhī=Kṣīroda=Kalas-odadhi; etc. There are seven *antara-dvīpas* to the south of Bhārata, e.g., 1. Vaidyutvata (on which there is Mt. Vidyutvat), 2. Māla, 3. Maina, 4. Vrata, 5. Jāla, 6. Nāra and 7. Asaṅga, while the six *anudvīpas* are : 1. Aṅga, 2. Yava, 3. Malaya, 4. Śaṅkha, 5. Kuśa and 6. Varāha. The Aṅga-dvīpa is in the Western Sea and has the Cakragiri on it and the Yava-dvīpa is in the Eastern Ocean in which there is the Kālodaka sea. The Malaya-dvīpa is likewise in the Southern Sea and consists of Dardara, Mālaya and Māhāmalaya. To the east of the Malaya-dvīpa is the Kuśa-dvīpa, also called Campaka-dvīpa, beyond which is the blood-carrying sea called Lohitya. In the west, there is the Varāha- or Vārāha-dvīpa where Hari is worshipped as Yajñavarāha. There are thousands of *kṣudra-dvīpas* in the Bhārata-varṣa such as Barhiṇa, Siṃhala, Hemakuḍya, Dvāravatīpada, Pārasīka-kula, Svarṇa-dvīpa, Vaidyuta, Ārṣabha, Ayomukha and Tārṇa also called Tārṇasaumya or Grāmaṇi-kula. In connection with the *anudvīpas*, see above, pp. 66-67, giving Yama for Yava.

c7.s6.16

(I) among the Udīcyas—1. Cīna=Kharamhhara ; 2. Gāndhāra=Dihaṇḍa (Udabhāṇḍa) ; 3. Yavana=Huruṣkara (Turuṣkaka); 4. Sambhāla=Śūrasena=

c7.s6.17

Śūraseni with their capital city at Mathurā; 5. Tokṣāra (Tukhāra)=Yugālika; 6. Jālandhara=Trigarta; 7. Hola=Kharaṭi; 8. Taitula (Tosala)=Kaliṅgaka; 9. Ṭarka (Ṭakka)=Bāhlīka(Bāhika); 10. Vāhika=Vāllika(Vāhika); 11. Sasindhu=Dārada; 12. Yaudheya=Nṛgālika; and others like Pārada, Kiñja and Kulya.

c7.s6.18

(II) Among the Prācyas—1. Mudgaraka=Kuja; 2. Prāgjyotiṣa=Kāmarūpa=Prāgjālika; 3. Śrāvastī=Purañjaka; 4. Rāḍha=Suhma; 5. Puṇḍra=Varendrī having the capital at Puṇḍra; 6. Bhaurika=Samataṭa; and others like Andhra, Vrata and Sālva (sic).

c7.s6.19

(III) In Dakṣiṇāpatha to the south of the Vindhya—1. Pāṇḍya=Pāṇḍiya; 2. Cola=Utpalāvarta; 3. Mahārāṣṭra=Daṇḍaka; and others like Keṛala, Kulya, Setuja, Kulakālaka, Iṣika, Śabara and Āraṭṭa (sic).

c7.s6.20

(IV) Among the Aparānta or Pāścātya peoples are Sūryāraka (Sūrpāraka) and others.

c7.s6.21

(V) Among the inhabitants of the Vindhyan range—1. Malada=Sthaura 2. Karūśa=Bṛhadgṛha; 3. Traipura = Hahāla (Dabhāla) = Caidya = Cedi; 4. Daśārṇa=Vedipara (Vaidiśaka); and others like Mekala, Bhoja and Kosala.

c7.s6.22

(VI) In the Madhya-deśa—Sālva=Kārakutsīya consisting of six clans, viz. Udumbara, Tilakhala, Mahākāra (Madrakāra or Bhadrakāra), Yugandhara, Huliṅga (Bhuliṅga) and Śaradaṇḍa; and others like Kuntala, Kulya, Kaliṅga (sic), Kāśi, Kosala, Mekala, Kusaṭa, Saira, Jāṅgala, Pṛthava, Vṛka and Paṭaccara.

c7.s6.23

Among the names of rivers and cities, we have—1. Yamunā=Kālindī, etc.; 2. Narmadā—Somabhavā, Mekhalakanyakā(Mekhalakanyakā), etc; 3. Bāhudā = Arjuni = Saitā = Śyāmāṅgī = Saitavāhinī; 4. Tāpi=Tāpīni = Śaibyā; 5. Candrabhāsā (Candrabhāgā)=Candrikā; 6. Śatadru=Śutudrī; 7. Sāketa =Ayodhyā=Kośalā=Nandinī; 8. Madhurā=Madhūṣikā=Mathurā = Madhu-paghnā; 9. Vārāṇasi=Śivapuri = Vārāṇasi = Kāśikā; 10. Khāṇḍava-prastha =Jayantipura=Āhuka; 11. Avanti=Takṣaśilā; 12. Kākuṇḍī=Vārāṇavata; 13. Māhiṣmati=Vṛkasthalī;³⁰ etc. Among mountains, there are : 1. Suvela= Citrakūṭa, etc., 2. Lokāloka=Lokānt-ādri=Parācala, etc., 3. Malaya=Trikala, etc., 4. Rajat-ādri=Kailāsa=Harādri=Mahita, 5. Hiraṇyanābha=Maināka, 6. Veṅkaṭa =Vṛṣabha, 7. Simha(Simhācala)=Kesara=Keśavapriya, 8. Uday-ādri, 9. Asta=Astamaya.

c7.s6.24

³⁰ There may be some errors in Nos. 10-13.

c7.s6.25

Of similar items in the Kalpadrukośa (Deśaprakāṇḍa, i), mention may be made of—

c7.s6.26

1. Brahmavedi = Kurukṣetra = Pañcarāmahradāntarā = Dharmakṣetra =

c7.s6.27

Vinaśana(?)=Kurujāṅgala; 2. Vahlika=Vahlika=Vāhlika=Vāhlika; 3. Cola=Coḍa; 4. Yavana=Javana ; 5. Pārasīka=Pārasika ; 6. Vānāyu=Vanāvu ; 7. Kanyakubja =Kuśasthala=Kanyākubja=Kānyakubja (see No. 16 below); 8. Kośala=Kosala ; 9. Tirabhukti=Tirabhukta=Videha=Mithila ; 10. Cedi=Caidya=Dabāla=Dāhāla =Dāhala ; 11. Śrīhaṭṭa=Harikeli=Śrīhaṭa (Sylhet) : 12. Gajāhvaya=Hastipura= Gajāhva=Hastisāhvaya=Hastina=Hāstinapura=Hastināpura ; 14. Ekacakra= Harigṛha = Śambhuvārtani ; 15. Śāketa = Sāketa = Ayodhyā= Uttarakośalā= Kośalā ; 16. Kanyakubja =Kanyākubja=Kānyakubja=Mahodaya—Gādhipura Kauśa (see No. 7 above); 17. Dvāravatī=Dvārāvatī=Dvārakā=Kuśathalī= Vanamālini ; 18. Cedipūr=Tripurī=Cedinagari ; 19. Prājāpatya=Prayāga=Agni- hotragṛha ; 20. Mathurā=Śivapūr, etc. ; 21. Purīśreṣṭhā=Tīrtharājī=Jitvari= Tapaḥsthalī=Kāśī=Vārāṇasī= Kāśī = Varaṇāsī = Varāṇasī = Mahāśmaśāna= Ānandavana=Avimuktaka ; 22. Śivalinga=Ujjayinī=Viśālā=Ujjayani=Puṣpaka- raṇḍini=Avantikā ; 23. Devikoṭṭa=Camatkārapura, etc. ; 24. Nagara=Vṛddha- nagara=Siddhapura ; 25. Sārasvata=Haihayapūr=Māhiṣmatī ; 26. Iṇduprastha (Indraprastha)=Yoginipura ; 27. Gayā=Pṛtīrtha, etc. ; 28. Rājagṛha=Jarāsan- dhapura ; 29. Vaidarbha=Kuṇḍina=Kuṇḍināpura ; 30. Kāmarūpa=Kāmarū; etc.

c7.s6.28

Kalhaṇa’s Rājatarangiṇī (12th century) gives a good deal of valuable information on the topography of the Kashmir region of Utarāpatha. The thirteenth century commentator Yaśodhara, in his Jayamaṅgalā on the Kāmasūtra, gives information of the following type—1. Vaṅga lying to the east of the Lauhitya ; 2. Aṅga lying to the east of the Mahānadī ; 3. Kaliṅga lying to the south of the Gauḍa-viṣaya ; 4. Vāhlika-deśa=Uttarāpatha ; 5. Avanti=Ujjayinī- deśa=Apara-Mālava ; 6. Aparānta-deśa near the Paścima-samudra ; 7. Lāṭa-viṣaya lying to the west of Apara-Mālava ; 8. Dakṣiṇāpatha lying to the south of the Narmadā ; 9. Andhra-viṣaya lying to the east of Karṇāṭa-viṣaya in Dakṣiṇāpatha ; 10. Mahārāṣṭra-viṣaya lying between the Narmadā and the Karṇāṭa-viṣaya ; 11. Draviḍa-viṣaya lying to the south of the Karṇāṭa-viṣaya ; 12. Vanavāsa-viṣaya lying to the east of Koṅkaṇa-viṣaya ; 13. Mālava-Pūrva=Mālava ; 14. Strīrājya lying to the west of the Vajravanta country ; 15. Nagara=Paṭali- putra ; 16. Ābhīra-deśa=Śrīkaṇṭha-Kurukṣetr-ādi-bhūmi ; etc.³¹

c7.s6.29

³¹ See Gaekwad Oriental Series, No. I, p. 249.

c7.s6.30

There are also several lists of janapadas in certain medieval works. Thus in Vinayacandra’s Kāvyaśikṣā (G. O. S., No. 1), the author enumerates 84 territories, though we find only 76 names in the list as follows—(1) Gauḍa, (2) Kanyakubja, (3) Kaullaka, (4) Kaliṅga, (5) Aṅga, (6) Vaṅga, (7) Kurāṅga, (8) Cālya, (9) Kāmākṣa (Kāmākhyā in Assam), (10) Oḍra (Uḍḍiyāna in the Swat valley),³² (11) Puṇḍra, 12. Uḍīśa, 13. Mālava, 14. Lohita, 15-16. Paścima-Kaccha or Paścima-kaccha, 17. Vālabha (Wala), 18. Saurāṣṭra, 19. Kauṅkana, 20. Lāṭa, 21.Śrīmāla, 22. Arbuda, 23. Medapāṭa, 24. Maru, 25. Varendra, 26. Yamunā-tīra, 27. Gaṅgā-tīra, 28. Antar-vedi (between the Gaṅgā and the Yamunā), 29. Magadha, 30. Madhya (Madhya-deśa), 31. Kuru, 32. Kāhala, 33. Kāmarūpa, 34. Kāśī, 35. Avantī, 36. Pāpāntaka, 37. Kirāta, 38. Sauvīra, 39. Auśīra, 40. Vākāṇa (Vokkāṇa), 41. Uttarāpatha, 42. Gurjara, 43. Sindhu, 44. Kekāna (Kekaya), 45. Nepāla, 46. Ṭakka, 47. Turuṣka, 48. Tāika (Tāyika), 49. Āra (Ārava), 50. Jarjara, 51. Kāśmīra, 52. Himālaya, 53. Loha (Lohapura, Lahore), 54. Puruṣa (Peshawar), 55. Śrīrāṣṭra, 56. Dakṣiṇāpatha, 57. Siṅgha, 58. Caula (Chaul), 65. Śrīparvata, 66. Vidarbha, 67. Dhārā, 68. Ura, 69. Lāji, 70. Tāpī, 71. Mahārāṣṭra, 73. Ābhīra, 74. Narmadā-taṭa, 75. Narmadā-dvīpa and 76. Narmadā-deśa.

c7.s6.31

³² Note that Uḍīśa (Orissa) has been separately mentioned (No. 12). For the confusion between Oḍra and Uḍḍiyāna, see Sircar, The Śākta Pīṭhas, pp. 12-13; Journ. Or. Inst., Vol. xiii, pp. 329 ff.

c7.s6.32

A late medieval work entitled Śaktisaṅgama-tantra likewise describes 56 countries in and around India, 56 being another conventional number. The list, which is interesting because of the boundaries of the countries roughly indicated, is quoted below:

c7.s6.33

1. Aṅga (between Vaidyanātha and Bhuvaneśa), 2. Vaṅga (between the sea and the Brahmaputra), 3. Kaliṅga (between the east of Jagannātha and the bank of the Kṛṣṇā), 4. Kāliṅga (to the south of Kaliṅga), 5. Kerala including Siddhi-Kerala (between Subrahmaṇya and Janārdana) 6. Haṃsa-Kerala (between Rāmeśvara and Veṅkaṭeśa), 7. Sarveśa-Kerala (between Mt. Ananta and the city of Uḍupa), 8. Kāśmīra (between the Sāradā-maṭha and Mt. Kuṅkuma), 9. Kāmarūpa (bounded by Kāleśvara, Śveta-giri, Tripura and Nīla-parvata), 10. Mahārāṣṭra (between Tryambaka and Karṇāṭa), 11. Andhra (between Jagannātha and Bhramarāmbikā), 12. Saurāṣṭra or Gurjara (between the Koṅkaṇa and Hiṅgulāja), 13. Tailaṅga (between Śrīśaila and Coleśa), 14. Malayāla (between Mukāmbikā and Mt. Malaya), 15. Karṇāṭa (between Rāmanātha and Śrīraṅga), 16. Avanti (between the Tāmraparṇī and the place of Kālikā), 17. Vidarbha (between Bhadrakālī in the east and Rāmadurga in the west), 18. Maru (near Gujarāt and Dvārakā), 19. Ābhīra (between the Koṅkaṇa in the south and the Tāpī in the north-west), 20. Mālava (to the east of Avanti and to the north of the Godāvarī), 21. Cola (between Drāviḍa and Tailaṅga), 22. Pāñcāla (to the west and north of Kurukṣetra ;

c7.s6.34

cf. the names of the Pir Panjal range and river, which are really Pañcāla).83 23. Kāmboja (from Pāñcāla to the south-east of the Mleccha contry), 24. Virāṭa (to the north of Vidarbha, south of Indraprastha and east of the Maru), 25. Pāṇḍu or Pāṇḍya (to the south of Kāmboja and west of Indraprastha), 26. Videha or Taira-bhukti (between the Gaṇḍaki and Campāraṇya), 27. Bāhlīka (bordering on Kāmboja and lying to the east of Mahā-Mleccha), 28. Kirāta (on the Vindhya between Taptakuṇḍa and Rāmakṣetra), 29. Vakrānta (Makrān—between the Karatoyā and Hiṅgulāja), 30. Khurāsāna (Khurāsān=between the Hiṅgu-pīṭha or Hiṅglaj and Makkeśa or Mecca; apparently the same as Mleccha or Mahāmleccha), 31. Airāka (Iraq=in the northern part of Khurāsāna), 32. Bhoṭānta (Bhutan—between Kāśmīra and Kāmarūpa), 33. Cīna (Tibet—to the south-east of Mānaseśa or Lake Mānasa), 34. Mahācīna (from Mt. Kailāsa beyond the source of the Sarayū to Moṅga or Mongolia), 35. Nepāla (between Jaṭeśvara and Yoginī or Yoginīpura, i.e. Delhi), 36. Śīlahaṭṭa (Sylhet in East Pakistan—between the sea and Gaṇeśvara), 37. Gauḍa (between Vaṅga and Bhuvaneśa), 38. Mahākośala (North Kośala—bounded by Gokarneśa in the north, the Tantric Āryāvarta in the south, Tairabhukti in the east and Mahāpurī in the west), 39. Magadha (between Kāleśvara or Vyāseśvara and Taptakuṇḍa), 40. Kikaṭa (in the southern part of Magadha), 41. Utkala (extending upto the country of Jagaṇnātha), 42. Śrīkuntala (between the Kāma-giri and Dvārakā), 43. Hūṇa (to the south of the Kāma-giri and the north of the Maru-deśa), 44. Koṅkaṇa (on the sea-coast between the Ghaṭṭa or Western Ghaṭs and Koṭīśa), 45. Kaikaya (in Eastern India—between the Brahmaputra and Kāmarūpa), 47. Saurasena (between Magadha and the Western Vindhya), 47. Kuru (to the east of Pāñcāla--between the Hastināpura region and Kurukṣetra), 48. Siṃhala (to the east of the Maru-deśa and the south of Kām-ādri), 49. Pulinda (to the east of Śīlahaṭṭa, near Kāmarūpa), 50. Kaccha (to the east of Gaṇeśvara and the north of the sea, possibly also called Sevana), 51. Matsya (to the north of Pulinda and the east of Kaccha), 52. Madra (between Virāṭa and Pāṇḍya), 53. Sauvīra (abutting on Saurasena and Kaṇṭhaka), 54. Lāṭa (abutting on Vidarbha and Avantī), 55. Varvara or Barbara (from Māyāpura to the Sapta-śṛṅga in the south), and 56. Saindhava (between the Laṅkā-pradeśa and Makkā or Mecca).84

c7.s6.35

³³ Cf. Stein, Kalhaṇa's Rājatarangiṇī, Vol. i, p. 302, note ; Vol. ii, pp. 394-98.

c7.s6.36

³⁴ See Sircar, Stud. Geog. Anc. Med. Ind., pp. 68 ff.

c7.s6.37

In this connection, reference should also be made to numerous Śākta-Śaiva holy places, called pīṭha, in various lists found in the Purāṇas and Tantras. Elsewhere we have discussed several hundreds of such places of pilgrimage.³⁵ An important early list of the same type is offered by the pre-Gupta Buddhist work entitled Mahāmāyurī.³⁶ Another class of medieval works on Indian geography is represented by the Deśāvalivivṛti by Jagnmohana-paṇḍita or by Vikramasāgara and the Digvijayaprakāśa.³⁷ Cases of late interpolations in the Purāṇas are offered by the occurrence of such geographical names as Kalikātā (Calcutta) in some manuscripts of the Bhaviṣya Purāṇa.³⁸

Linked texts (13)

Rājataraṅgiṇī — Kalhaṇa, Sanskrit
Śaktisaṅgamatantra — Sanskrit
Mānava Dharmaśāstra — Manu & Bhṛgu, Sanskrit
Kāvyamīmāṃsā — Rājaśekhara, Sanskrit
Bhaviṣyapurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Tantra — Sanskrit
Kāmasūtra — Vātsyāyana Mallanāga, Sanskrit
Mahāmāyūrī — Sanskrit
Purāṇa — Sanskrit
Vaijayantī — Yādavaprakāśa, Sanskrit
Abhidhānacintāmaṇi — Hemacandra, Sanskrit
Trikāṇḍaśeṣa — Puruṣottamadeva, Sanskrit
Jayamaṅgalā — Śaṅkara, Sanskrit