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Cosmography and Geography in Early Indian Literature c8.s2: II.—Extracts from Ptolemy’s Geography

Cosmography and Geography in Early Indian Literature c8.s2

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Contents

II.—Extracts from Ptolemy’s Geography

(A) India within the Ganges (Intra Gangem)

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⁷ See L. Renou, *La Geographie de Ptolemée: L'Inde* (vii, I-4), Paris, 1925, pp. 1ff. ; R. C. Majumdar, *The Classical Accounts of India*, pp. 251ff. ; S. N. Majumdar Sastri, *McCrindle's Ancient India as described by Ptolemy*, pp. 32ff.

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1. India within the river Ganges is bounded on the west by the Paropanisadai (Kabul region) and Arakhosia (Kandahar region) and Gedrosia (Baluchistan-Makran region) along their eastern sides already indicated; on the north by Mount Imaos (Himavat) along the Sogdaioi (Suguda) and the Sakai (Śaka) lying above it; on the east by the river Ganges; and on the south and again on the west by a portion of the Indian Ocean. The circuit of the coast of this ocean is thus described :—

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2. In Syrastrene (Surāṣṭra), on the Gulf called Kanthikos (Kutch), Kanthi a roadstead and harbour ...... 109° 30', 20°

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6. Claudias Ptolemaeus, the Greek mathematician, astronomer and geographer, flourished in Alexandria in Egypt during the reign of Antoninus Pius in the second century A.D. In his Geography which is divided into 8 Parts, he assumes the sphere of earth to be 180,000 stadia in circumference, a degree of the equator being 500 stadia instead of 600 which is its real length. He estimated the length of the inhabited part of the earth, as measured along the parallel of Rhodes which divided the then known world into two almost equal parts, at 72,000 stadia and its breadth at 40,000 stadia. He calculated his longitudes from the meridian in the West which was that passing through the Islands of the Blest (probably the Canary Islands), his most eastern meridian being that passing through the metropolis of Sinai, called Sinai or Thinai and placed in 180° 40' E. long. and 3° S. lat. The distance of this meridian from that of Alexandria was estimated at 119½ degrees and the distance of the first meridian from the same at 60½ degrees thus making 180 degrees together or one-half of the earth's circumference. Ptolemy estimated the breadth of the earth to be 40,000 stadia. His system not only suffers from the basic mistakes of calculation referred to above, but also from imperfect knowledge of the location of places in many parts of the world.

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In this section, Greek kappa and omicron (in the os ending) are represented by k and o respectively after McCrindle. There is slight difference in the latitudes and longitudes and in the forms of the names as given by different translators.

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| The most western mouth of the | | | |
| river Indus, called Sagapa | ... | 110° 20', | 19° 50' |
| The next mouth called Sinthon | ... | 110° 40', | 19° 50' |
| The 3rd called Khrysoun (Golden) | ... | 111° 20', | 19° 50' |
| The 4th called Kariphron | ... | 112° 30', | 19° 50' |
| The 5th called Sapara | ... | 113°, | 20° 15' |
| The 6th called Sabalaessa | ... | 113° 30', | 20° 15' |
| The 7th called Lonibare | ... | 113° 40', | 19° 40' |
| 3. Bardaxema, a town | ... | 114°, | 19° 50' |
| Syrastra (Surāṣṭra), a village | ... | 114° 10', | 18° 40' |
| Monoglosson (Mangrol), a mart | ... | | |
| 4. In Larike (Lāṭikā, Lāṭa)— | | | |
| Mouth of the River Mophis (Mahi) | ... | 114°, | 18° 20' |
| Pakidare, a village | ... | 113°, | 17° 50' |
| Cape Maleo | ... | 111°, | 17° 30' |
| 5. In the Gulf of Barygaza (Bhṛgukaccha, Broach)— | | | |
| Kamane (Cammoni of the Periplus) | ... | 112°, | 17° |
| Mouth of the river Namados (Narmadā) | ... | 112°, | 17° 45' |
| Nausaripa (Navasārikā, modern | | | |
| Nausari in the Surat District) | ... | 112° 30', | 16° 30' |
| Poulipoula | ... | 112° 30', | 16° |
| 6. Ariake of the Sadenoi (Aparāntaka of the Śātavāhanas ; Konkan and the | | | |
| adjoining lands)— | | | |
| Soupara (Sūrpāraka, modern Sopara) | ... | 112° 30', | 15° 30' |
| Mouth (Source) of the river Goaris | | | |
| (Godāvarī) | ... | 112° 15', | 15° 10' |
| Dounga | ... | 111° 30', | 15° |
| Mouth (Source) of the river Benda (Bhīmā) | ... | 110° 30', | 15° |
| Simylla (Chaul), a mart and a cape | ... | 110°, | 14° 45' |
| Hippokoura | ... | 111° 45', | 14° 10' |
| Baltipatna or Balepatna | ... | 110° 30', | 14° 20' |
| 7. [Ariake] of the Pirates (South Konkan)— | | | |
| Mandagara (cf. Periplus) | ... | 113°, | 14° |
| Byzanteion (cf. Periplus) | ... | 113° 40', | 14° 40' |
| Khersonesos (cf. Periplus) | ... | 114° 20', | 14° 30' |
| Armagara | ... | 114° 20', | 14° 20' |

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| Mouth of the river Nanagouna | ... | 114° | 30', | 13° | 50' |
| Nitra (Mangalore), a mart | ... | 115° | 30', | 14° | 40' |
| 8. Limyrike (Damirica=Draviḍa, Tamilaka)— | | | | | |
| Tyndis, a city (cf. Periplus) | ... | 116°, | | 14° | 30' |
| Bramagara | ... | 116° | 45', | 14° | 20' |
| Kalaikarias | ... | 116° | 40', | 14° | |
| Mouziris, an emporium (cf. Periplus) | ... | 117°, | | 14° | |
| Mouth of the river Pseudostomos | ... | 117° | 20', | 14° | |
| Podoperoura | ... | 117° | 40', | 14° | 15' |
| Semne | ... | 118°, | | 14° | 20' |
| Koreoura | ... | 118° | 40', | 14° | 20' |
| Bakarei | ... | 119° | 30', | 14° | 30' |
| Mouth of the river Baris | ... | 120°, | | 14° | 20' |
| 9. Country of the Aioi : | | | | | |
| Melkynda (cf. Periplus) | ... | 120° | 20', | 14° | 20' |
| Elangkon or Elangkor, a mart | ... | 120° | 40', | 14° | |
| Kottiara, the metropolis | ... | 121°, | | 14° | |
| Bammala | ... | 121° | 20', | 14° | 15' |
| Komaria (Kumārīkā, Comorin), | | | | | |
| a cape and town | ... | 121° | 45', | 13° | 30' |
| 10. Country of the Kareoi : | | | | | |
| in the Kolkhic Gulf, where there is the pearl-fishery— | | | | | |
| Sosikourai | ... | 122°, | | 14° | 30' |
| Kolkhoi, an emporium (cf. Periplus) | ... | 123°, | | 15° | |
| Mouth of the river Solen | ... | 124°, | | 14° | 40' |
| 11. Land of Pandion (Pāṇḍya) : | | | | | |
| in the Organic Gulf, Cape Kory, also called | | | | | |
| Kalligikon (in the Rāmeśvaram Island) | ... | 125° | 40', | 12° | 20' |
| Argeirou (Uragapura), a town | ... | 125° | 15', | 14° | 30' |
| Salour, a mart | ... | 125° | 20', | 15° | 30' |
| 12. Country of the Batoi : | | | | | |
| Nikama, the metropolis | ... | 126°, | | 16° | |
| Thelkheir | ... | 127°, | | 16° | 10' |
| Kouroula, a town | ... | 128°, | | 16° | |
| 13. In Paralia specially so called : the country of the Toringoi (Cola) : | | | | | |
| Mouth of the river Khaberos (Kāverī) | ... | 129°, | | 15° | 15' |

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Khaberis (Kāveripattana), an emporium ... 128° 30', 15° 40' Sabouras, an emporium ... 130°, 14° 30'
14. The Arouarnoi (Aruvā-nāḍu) : Podouke (near Puducceri, Pondichery) an emporium ... 130° 15', 14° 30' Melange, an emporium ... 131°, 14° 20' Mouth of the river Tyna ... 131° 40', 12° 45' Kottis ... 132° 20', 12° 10' Manarpha or Manaliarpha, a mart ... 133° 10', 12°
15. Maisolia (the Masulipatam region) : Mouth of the river Maisolos (Kṛṣṇā) ... 134°, 11° 40' Kontakossyla (modern Ghaṇṭaśāla), a mart ... 134° 30', 11° 40' Koddoura (modern Gudur) ... 135°, 11° 30' Allosygne, a mart ... 135° 40', 11° 20' The point of departure (apheterion) for ships bound for Khryse (Suvarṇa-bhūmi) ... 136° 20', 11°
16. In the Gangetic Gulf— Paloura or P'akoura, a town ... 136° 40', 11° 20' Nanigaina ... 136° 20', 12° Katikardama ... 136° 20', 12° 40' Kannagara ... 136° 30', 13° 30' Mouth of the river Manada (Mahānadī) ... 137°, 14° Kottobara ... 137° 15', 14° 40' Sippara ... 137° 40', 15° 30' Mouth of the river Tyndis ... 138° 30', 16°
17. Mapoura ... 139°, 16° 30' Minagara ... 140°, 17° 15' Mouth of the Dosaron ... 141°, 17° 40' Kokala ... 142°, 18° Mouth of the river Adamas ... 142° 40', 18° Kosamba or Kosaba ... 143° 30', 18° 15'
18. Mouths of the Ganges (Gaṅgā) : the Kambyson (cf. Kapiśā, modern Kaśāi) mouth, the most western ... 144° 30', 18° 15' Poloura, a town ... 145°, 18° 30' The second mouth, called Mega ... 145° 45', 18° 30' The third called Kamberikhon ... 146° 30', 18° 40'

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| Tilogrammon, a town | ... | 147° 20', | 18° |
| The fourth mouth, Pseudostomon | ... | 147° 40', | 18° 30' |
| The fifth mouth, Antibole | ... | 148° 30', | 18° 15' |

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19. The mountains belonging to Intra-Gangetic India are named as follows: the Apokopa (Aravalli), called Poinai Theon (punishment of the gods), which extended from long. 116° to 124° and from lat. 23° at their western limit to 26° at the eastern.

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20. Mount Sardonyx (Satpura), in which is found the precious stone of the same name, and whose middle point is in long. 177°, lat. 21°.

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21. Mount Ouindion (Vindhya) which extends from long 126° to 135° and preserves from its western to its eastern limit a uniform latitude of 27°.

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22. Bettigo (Malaya range), which extends from long 123° to 130°, and whose western limit is in lat. 21° and its eastern in 20°.

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23. Adeisathron (Sahyādri or Western Ghāṭs), whose middle point is in long. 132°, lat. 23°.

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24. Ouxenton (Ṛkṣavat), which extends from long 136° to 143°, and whose western limit is in lat. 22° and its eastern in 24°.

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25. The Oroudian (Vaidūrya or northern parts of the Western Ghāṭs) mountains, which extends from long 138° to 133°, and whose eastern limit is in 18° lat. and its western in 16°.

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The rivers which flow from Mount Imaos (Himavat) into the Indus are arranged as follows :—

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| Sources of the river Koa (Kubhā, Kabul) | | 120°, | 37° |
| Sources of the river Souastos (Suvāstu, Swat) | | 122° 30', | 36° |
| Sources of the river Indus (Sindhu) | ... | 125°, | 37° |
| Sources of the river Bidaspes (Vitastā, Jhelam) | | 127° 30', | 36° 40' |
| Sources of the river Sandabal (Candrabhāgā, Chenab) | 129°, | | 36° |
| Sources of the river Adris or Rouadis (Irāvatī, Rāvi) | 130°, | . | 37° |
| Sources of the river Bibasis (Vipāśā, Beas) | ... | 131°, | 35° 30' |
| 27. Sources of the river | | | |
| Zaradros (Śatadru, Satlaj) | ... | 132°, | 36° |
| Confluence of the Koa and Indus | ... | 124°, | 31° |
| Confluence of the Koa and Souastos | ... | 122° 30', | 31° 40' |
| Confluence of the Zaradros and Indus | ... | 124°, | 30° |
| Confluence of the Zaradros and Bidaspes | ... | 125°, | 30° |
| Confluence of the Zaradros and Bibasis | ... | 131°, | 34° |
| Confluence of the Bidaspes and Adris | ... | 126° 30', | 31° 30' |

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Confluence of the Bidaspes and Sandabal ... 126° 40', 32° 40'
28. Divarication (a branch that is also tributary) from the Indus running towards Mt. Ouindion 123°, 29° 30' The sources of [atributary joining] the divarication 127°, 27° Divarication of the Indus towards Arachosia ... 121° 30', 27° 30' Divarication of the Koa towards the Paropanisadai (Hindu Kush) ... 121° 30', 33° The source of [atributary joining] the divarication 115°, 24° 30' Divarication of the Indus towards the Arbita mountains ... 117°, 25° 10' Divarication of the Indus towards the Paropanisadai 124° 30', 31° 20' Divarication of the Indus into the Sagapa mouth 113° 40', 23° 15' From the Sagapa into the Indus ... 111°, 21° 30' Divarication of the Indus into the Khrysoun (Golden) mouth ... 112° 30', 22° Divarication of the Indus into the Khariphon mouth 113° 30', 22° 20' From the Khariphon to the Sapara ... 112° 30', 21° 45' Divarication of the same river Khariphon into the Sabalaessa mouth ... 113°, 21° 20' Divarication from the river Khariphon into the Lonibare mouth ... 113° 20', 21° 40'

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29. Of the streams which join the Ganges (Gaṅgā), the order is this:— Sources of the river Diamouna (Yamunā) ... 134° 30', 36° Sources of the Ganges itself ... 136°, 37° Sources of the river Sarabos (Sarayū or Ghogra) 140°, 36° Junction of the Diamouna and Ganges ... 136°, 34° Junction of the Sarabos and Ganges ... 136° 30', 32° 30'

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30. Divarication from the Ganges towards the Ouindion range to the mouth of the river Soa (Śoṇa, Sone) 136° 10', 31° 30' The sources of the river ... 131°, 28° Divarication of the Ganges towards the Ouxenton range ... 142°, 28° The sources of the divarication ... 137°, 23° Divarication from the Ganges into the Kambyson mouth ... 146°, 22° Divarication from the Ganges into the Pseudostomos ... 146° 30', 20°

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Divarication from the Ganges in the Antibole mouth 146° 30', 21° Divarication from the Kambyson river into the Mega mouth ... 145°, 20° Divarcation from the Mega mouth into the Kamberikhon mouth ... 145° 30', 19° 30'

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31. And, of the other rivers, the positions are thus : the source of the river Namados in the Ouindion range 127°, 26° 30' The bend of the river at Saripala ... 116° 30', 22° Its confluence (sic) with the river Mophis (Mahī) 115°, 18° 30'

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32. Sources of the river Nanagouna from the Ouindion range ... 132°, 26° 30' Where it bifurcates into the Goaris and Benda ... 114°, 16°

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33. Sources of the Pseudostomos from the Bettigo range ... 123°, 21° The point where it turns ... 118° 30', 17° 15'

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34. Sources of the river Baris in the Bettigo range ... 127°, 26° 30' Sources of the river Solen in the Bettigo range ... 127° 20° 30' The point where it turns ... 124°, 18°

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35. Sources of the river Khaberos (Kāverī) in the Adeisathron (Sahyādri) range ... 132°, 22°

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36. Sources of the river Tyna in the Oroudian or Arouedan mountains ... 133°, 17°

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37. Sources of the river Maisolos (Kṛṣṇā) in the same mountains ... 134° 30', 17° 30'

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38. Sources of the river Manada (Mahānadī) in the same mountains ... 136° 30', 16° 30'

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39. Sources of the river Toundis in the Ouxenton range 137°, 22° 30'

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40. Sources of the river Dosaron in the same range ... 140°, 24°

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41. Sources of the river Adamas in the same range ... 142°, 24° 42. The order of the territories in this division (India within the Ganges) and of their cities or villages is as follows :

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Below the sources of the Koa are located the Lambatai (Lampāka, Laghmān), and their mountain region extends upwards to that of the Komedai (Gomeda of the Purāṇas).

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Below the sources of the Souastos is Souastene (Suvāstu, Swat valley).

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Below those of the Indus are the Daradrai (Darada or Darad), in whose country the mountains are of surpassing height.

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Below the sources of the Bidaspes and of the Sandabal and of the Adris is Kaspeiria (Kaśyāpapura=Kaśmīra).

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Below the sources of the Bibasis and of the Zaradros and of the Diamouna and of the Ganges is Kylindrine (Kulinda, Kuṇinda), and below the Lambatai and Souastene is Goryaia (people of the Gaurī or Panjkora valley).

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43. And the cities are these :

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| Kaisana | ... | 120°, | 34° | 20' |
| Baborana | ... | 120° 15', | 33° | 40' |
| Gorya | ... | 122°, | 34° | 45' |
| Nagara or Dionysopolis (Nagarahāra, Jalālābād) | ... | 121° 45' | 33° | |
| Drastoka | ... | 120° 30', | 32° | 30' |

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44. Between the Souastos and the Indus, the Gandarai (Gandhāra) and these cities :

c8.s2.t1.42

| Proklais (Puṣkalāvatī ; Charsadda-Mir Ziyarat near Peshwar) | ... | 123°, | 32° | |
| Naulibi | ... | 124° 20', | 33° | 20' |

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45. Between the Indus and the Bidaspes towards the Indus, the Arsa (Urasā, Hazara region) territory and these cities :

c8.s2.t1.44

| Ithagouros | ... | 125° 40', | 33° | 20' |
| Taxiala (Takṣaśīla near Rawalpindi) | ... | 125°, | 32°. | 15' |

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46. Around the Bidaspes, the country of the Pandoouoi (Pāṇḍava), in which are these cities :

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| Labaka | ... | 127° 30', | 34° | 15' |
| Sagala, otherwise called Euthymedia (Euthydemia ; Sākala, Sialkot) | ... | 126° 20', | 32° | |
| Bukephala (cf. Periplus) | ... | 125° 30', | 30° | 20' |
| Iomousa | ... | 124° 15', | 30° | |

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47. The regions extending thence towards the east are possessed by the Kaspeiraioi (Kaśmīra, wrongly indicated), and to them belong these cities—

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48. Salagissa ... 129° 30', 34° 30' Astrassos ... 131° 15', 34° 15' Labokla ... 128°, 33° 20' Batanagra ... 130°, 33° 30' Arispara ... 130°, 32° 50' Amakatis ... 128° 15', 32° 20' Ostobalasara ... 129°, 32°

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49. Kaspeira (Kaśyapapura) ... 127°, 31° 15' Pasikana ... 128° 30', 31° 15' Daidala ... 128°, 30° 30' Ardone ... 126° 15', 30° 10' Indabara (Indraprastha) ... 127° 15', 30° Linganeira ... 125° 30', 29° Khonnamagara ... 128°, 29° 20'

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50. Modoura (Mathurā), the city of the gods ... 125°, 27° 30' Gagasmira or Gatasmira ... 126° 40', 27° 30' Erarasa or Eragassa, a metropolis ... 123°, 26° Kognandaua or Kognabanda ... 124°, 26°

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51. Still further to the east than the Kaspeiraioi, are the Gymnosophistai, and after these around the Ganges further north, are the Daitikhai with these towns: Konta or Konga ... 133° 30', 34° 40' Margara ... 135°, 34° Batangkaissara ... 132° 40', 33° 20'

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And to the east of the river— Passala ... 137°, 34° 15' Orza ... 136°, 33° 20'

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52. Below these are the Anikhai with these towns— Persakra ... 134° 32', 40' Sannaba ... 135°, 32° 30' Touana to the east of the river ... 136° 30', 32°

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53. Below these Prasiake (Prācya) with these towns— Sambalaka ... 132° 15', 31° 50' Adisdara (Ahicchatra in the Bareilly District, wrongly placed) ... 136°, 31° 30' Kanagora (Kānyakubja, Kanauj in the Farrukhabad District, wrongly placed) ... 135°, 30° 40' Kindia ... 137°, 30° 20'

c8.s2.t1.55

| Sagala (Sākala, Sialkot, wrongly placed) | ... | 139°, | 30° 20' |
| And to the east of the river— | | | |
| Aninakha | ... | 137° 20', | 31° 40' |
| Koangka | ... | 138° 20', | 31° 30' |

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54. South of this, Saurabatis with these towns—

c8.s2.t1.57

| Empelathra | ... | 130°, | 30° |
| Nadoubandagar | ... | 138° 40', | 29° |
| Tamasis | ... | 133°, | 29° |
| Kouraporeina | ... | 130°, | 29° |

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55. And further, all the country along the rest of the course of the Indus is called by the general name of Indo-Scythia (Śakasthāna). Of this, the insular portion formed by the bifurcation of the river towards its mouth is Patalene (Pātāla), and the region above this is Abiria (Ābhīra), and the region about the mouths of the Indus and the Gulf of Kanthikos (Kutch) is Syrastrene (Surāṣṭra). The towns of Indo-Scythia are these : to the west of the river at some distance therefrom—

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56. Artoarta

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| Artoarta | ... | 121° 30', | 31° 15' |
| Andrapana | ... | 121° 15', | 30° 40' |
| Sabana or Nasbana | ... | 122° 20', | 32° |
| Banagara or Kanagara | ... | 122° 15', | 30° 40' |
| Kodrana | ... | 121° 15', | 29° 20' |

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57. And along the river—

c8.s2.t1.62

| Embolima (Amb-Balimah on the Indus 60 miles above Attock) | ... | 124°, | 31° |
| Pentagramma | ... | 124°, | 30° 20' |
| Asigramma | ... | 123°, | 29° 30' |
| Tiausa | ... | 121° 30', | 28° 50' |
| Aristobathra | ... | 120°, | 27° 30' |
| Azika | ... | 119° 20', | 27° |

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58. Pardabathra

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| Pardabathra | ... | 117°, | 23° 30' |
| Piska | ... | 116° 30', | 25° |
| Pasipeda | ... | 114° 30', | 24° |
| Sousikana (Mousikana, capital of Mousikanos in Sind) | ... | 112°, | 22° 20' |
| Bonis | ... | 111°, | 21° 30' |
| Kolaka or Kokala | ... | 110° 30', | 20° 40' |

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59. And in the islands formed by the river are these towns—

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| Patala (cf. the tīrtha called Pātāla in the Purāṇas) | 112° 30', | 21° | |

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Barbarei (Barbara) ... 113° 15', 22° 30'

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60. And east of the river at some distance therefrom are these towns—

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Xodrake (city of the Kṣudraka) ... 116°, 24° Sarbana or Sarkana ... 116°, 22° 50' Auxoamis ... 115° 30', 22° 20' Asinda ... 114° 15', 22° Orbadarou or Ordabari ... 115°, 22° Theophila ... 114° 15', 21° 10' Astakapra (Hastakavapra, Hathab) ... 114° 40', 20° 12'

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61. Along the river are these towns—

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Panasa ... 122° 30', 29° Boudaia ... 121° 15', 28° 15' Naagramma (Navagrāma) ... 120°, 27° Kamigara ... 119°, 26° 20' Binagara ... 118°, 25° 20' Parabali ... 116° 30', 24° 30' Sydros (city of the Śūdra) ... 114°, 21° 20' Epitausa or Epipausa ... 113° 45', 22° 30' Xoana ... 113° 30', 21° 30'

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62. The parts east of Indo-Scythia along the coast belong to the country of Larike (Lāṭikā, Lāṭa), and here in the interior to the west of the river Namados (Narmadā) is a mart of commerce, the city of Barygaza (Bhṛgukaccha, Broach) ... ... 113° 15', 17° 20'

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63. To the east of the river—

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Agrinagara ... 118° 15', 22° 30' Siripalla ... 118° 30', 21° 30' Bammogoura or Gammogoura ... 116°, 20° 45' Sazantion or Sagantion ... 115° 30', 20° 30' Serogerei or Xerogerei ... 116° 20', 19° 50' Ozene (Ujjayinī), the capital of Tiastanes (the Kārdamaka-Śaka Satrap Caṣṭana) ... 117°, 20° Minagara (Minnagara) ... 115° 10', 19° 30' Tiatoura or Tiagoura ... 115° 50', 18° 50'

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Nasika⁸ ... 114°, 17°

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⁸ Nāsik in Mahārāṣṭra was, about the middle of the second century A.D., in the dominions of the Sadenoi (Śātavāhanas) and not of the Kārdamaka-Śakas. As we have seen above, the Puranic list of janapadas places it in Aparānta.

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64. The parts farther inland are possessed by the Poulindai Agriophagoi (Pulinda subsisting on raw flesh, roots and fruits), and beyond them are the Khatriaioi (Kṣatri or Kṣatriya), to whom belong these cities, lying some east and some west of the Indus—

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Nigranigramma ... 124°, 28° 15' Antakhara ... 122°, 27° 20' Soudasanna ... 123°, 26° 50' Syrnisika or Sournis ... 121°, 26° 30' Patistama ... 121°, 25° Tisapatinga or Sinapatinga ... 123°, 24° 20'

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65. But again, the country between Mount Sardonyx and Mount Bettigo belongs to the Tabasoi, a great race, while the country beyond them as far as the Ouindion range, along the eastern bank of the Namados, belongs to the Prapiotai, who include the Rhamnai or Siramnai, and whose towns are these :

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Kognabanda ... 120° 15', 23° Ozoabis or Ozoamis ... 120° 30', 23° 40' Ostha ... 122° 30', 23° 30' Kosa, where there are diamonds ... 121° 20', 25° 30'

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66. About the Nanagouna (river flowing through the south of Ariake of the Pirates, i.e. the South Konkan) are the Phyllitai and the Bettigoi (people named after Mt. Bettigo or Malaya), including the Gondaloi (Kuntala) along the country of the Bettigoi and the mountain range, and the following towns :

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67. Agara ... 129° 20', 25° Adeisathra ... 128° 30', 24° 30' Sora or Souara (Śavara) ... 124° 20', 24° Nygdosora ... 125°, 23° Anara or Anarta ... 122° 30', 22° 20'

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68. Between Mount Bettigo and Adeisathron are the Sorai (Śavara or Kuḍiya of South Kanara) nomads, with these towns :

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Sangamarta ... 133°, 21° Sora (Śavara), the capital of Arkatos ... 130°, 21° 69. Again to the east of the Ouindion range is the territory of the Biolingai or Bolingai (Bhuliṅga), with these towns : Stagabaza or Bastagaza ... 133°, 28° 30' Bardaotis (Bhadrāvatī) ... 137° 30', 28° 30'

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70. Beyond these is the country of the Porouaroi (Paurava) with these towns : Bridama ... 134° 30', 27° 30' Tholoubana ... 136° 20', 27° Malaita ... 136° 30', 25° 50'

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71. Beyond these as far as the Ouxenton range are the Adeisathroi (people of the region near the Sahyādri) with these towns : Maleiba ... 140°, 27° 20' Aspathis ... 138° 30', 25° 20' Panasa ... 137° 40', 24° 30' Sageda (Sāketa, wrongly placed) the metropolis 133°, 23° 30' Balantipyrgon ... 136° 30', 23° 30'

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72. Farther east than the Adeisathroi towards the Ganges are the Mandalai with the city : Asthagoura ... 142°, 25°

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73. And on the river (Ganges) itself are these towns : Sambalaka ... 141°, 29° 30' Sigalla ... 142°, 28° Palimbothra (Pāṭaliputra), the royal residence 143°, 27° Tamalites (Tāmralipta) ... 144° 30', 26° 30' Oreophanta ... 146° 30', 24° 30'

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74. In like manner the parts under Mount Bettigo are occupied by the Brakhmanai Magoi (Maga-Brāhmaṇa) as far as the Batoi with this city : Brakhme ... 128°, 19°

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75. The parts under the range of Adeisathron as far as the Arouraioi or Arouaia are occupied by the Badiamaioi with this city : Tathilba ... 134°, 18° 50'

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76. The parts under the Ouxenton range are occupied by the Drilophyllitai, with these cities : Sibrion ... 139°, 22° 20' Opotoura ... 137° 30', 21° 40' Ozoana ... 138° 15', 20° 30'

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77. Further east than these towards the Ganges are the Konkonagai (Kaliṅga) with this city :

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Dosara (Tosali) ... 142° 30', 22° 30'
78. And on the river farther west : Kartinaga or Kartinata ... 146°, 23° Kartasina or Kartasynar ... 146°, 21° 40'
79. Under the Maisolai, the Salakenoi (Śālaṅkāyana) towards the Oroudian or Arouraian mountains with these cities : Benagouran (Bengaouron=Veṅgipura near Elūru) ... 140°, 20° 15' Kastra ... 138°, 19° 30' Magaris ... 137° 30', 18° 20'
80. Towards the Ganges river, the Sabarai (Śabara), in whose country the diamond is found in great abundance ; their towns are : Tasopion ... 140° 30', 22° Karikardama ... 141°, 20° 15'
81. All the country about the mouths of the Ganges is occupied by the Gangaridai (Vaṅga) with this city : Gange (Gaṅgā), the royal residence ... 146° 19', 15'
82. In the parts of Ariake which still remain to be described are the following inland cities and villages : to the west of the Benda, these cities— Malippala ... 119° 30', 20° 15' Sarisabis ... 119° 30', 20° Tagara (modern Ter in the Osmanabad District) 118°, 19° 20' Baithana (Pratiṣṭhāna, modern Paithan in the Aurangabad District) the royal seat of Siro-Ptolemaios (the Śātavāhana king Śri-Plumāvi) ... 117°, 18° 30' Deopalli or Deopala (Devapallī) ... 115° 40', 17° 50' Gamaliba or Gabaliba ... 115° 15', 17° 20' Omenogara ... 114°, 16° 20'
83. Between the Benda and Pseudostomos : Nagagoura, Nagarouris or Nagarouraris ... 120°, 20° 15' Tabaso ... 121° 30', 20° 40' Inde ... 123°, 20° 45' Tiripangalida ... 121° 15', 19° 40' Hippokoura (in the Kolhapur region), the royal seat of Balekouros (Vilivāyakura) ... 119° 45', 19° 10' Soubouttou ... 120° 15', 19° 10' Sirimalaga ... 119° 20', 18° 30'

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Kalligeris ... 118°, 18° Modogoulla (Mudgal in the Raichur District) ... 119°, 18° Petirgala ... 117° 45', 17° 15' Banaouasei (Banavāsi in the North Kanara District) 116°, 16° 45'

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84. The inland cities [of Ariake] of the Pirates are these : Olokhoira ... 114°, 15° Mousopalle, the metropolis ... 115° 30', 15° 45'

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85. The inland cities of Limyrike (Damirica, Draviḍa or Tamilaka), to the west of the Pseudostomos, are these : Naroulla or Nalloura ... 117° 45', 15° 50' Kouba or Kouma ... 117°, 15° Paloura ... 117° 15', 14° 40'

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86. Between the Pseudostomos and the Baris, there are these cities : Pasage ... 124° 50', 19° 50' Mastanour or Mentanour ... 121° 30', 18° 40' Kourelloura ... 119°, 17° 30' Pounnata Puṇṇāḍu in South Mysore), where there is beryl ... 121° 20', 17° 30' Aloe ... 121° 20', 17° Karoura (Karur in the Coimbatore District), the royal seat of Kerobothros (Keralaputra) ... 119°, 16° 20' Arembour ... 121° 16° 20' Bideris ... 119°, 15° 50' Pantipolis or Pangipoleis ... 118°, 15° 20' Adarima ... 119° 30', 15° 40' Koreour ... 120°, 15°

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87. The inland town of the Aioi : Morounda or Korounda ... 121° 20', 14° 20'

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88. The inland cities of the Kareoi : Mendela ... 123°, 17° 40' Selour or Delour ... 121° 45', 16° 30' Tittoua ... 122°, 15° 20' Mantitour ... 123°, 15° 10' 89. The inland cities of the Pandionoi (Pāṇḍya) : Taimour or Tainour ... 124° 45', 18° 40' Peringkarei ... 123° 20', 18° Korindiour ... 125°, 17° 40' Tangala or Taga ... 123° 30', 16° 50' Modoura (Dakṣiṇa-Mathurā, Madurai) the royal city of Pandion (Pāṇḍya) ... 125°, 16° 20' Akour ... 124° 45', 15° 20'

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90. The inland cities of the Batoi : Kalindoia ... 127° 40', 17° 30' Bata ... 126° 30', 17° Tallara ... 128°, 16° 45'

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91. The inland cities of the Paralia of the Soretai or Soringoi (Cola) : Kaliour ... 129°, 17° 20' Tennagora ... 132°, 17° Eikour ... 129°, 16° 40' Orthoura (Uraiyur), the royal city of Sornagos or Sornas (Cola-nāyaka) ... 130°, 16° 20' Bere ... 130° 20', 16° 15' Abour ... 129°, 16° Karmara ... 130° 20', 15° 40' Magour or Nagour ... 130°, 15° 15'

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92. The inland cities of the Arouarnoi (Aruvānāḍu or the Kanchipuram region) are these : Kerange ... 133°, 16° 15' Phrourion ... 132°, 15° Karige ... 132° 40', 15° Poleour ... 131° 30', 14° 40' Pikendaka ... 131° 30', 14° Iatour ... 132° 30', 14° Skopoloura ... 134° 15', 14° 35' Ikarta ... 133° 30', 13° 40' Malanga, the capital of Basaronagos or Barsaronax 133° 30', 13° Nandipatna or Pandipatna (Kāñcipattana) ... 133° 30', 12° 20'

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93. The inland cities of the Maisoloi : Kalinga (Kalinganagara, wrongly placed) ... 138°, 17° Bardamana (Vardhamāna, Vadama in Visakhapatnam) 136° 15', 15° 15'

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Koroungkala ... 135°, 15° Pharytra or Pharetra ... 134° 20', 13° 20' Pityndra or Pitoura, the metropolis ... 135° 20', 12° 30'

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94. Inlands lying near the part of India which projects into the ocean in the Gulf of Kanthikos (Kutch) : Barake (Dvārakā) ... 111°, 18°

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95. And along the line of coast as far as the Kolkhic Gulf : Milizegyris or Milizigeris (cf. *Periplus*) ... 110°, 12° 30' Heptanesia (group of 7 Islands) ... 113°, 13° Trikadiba (Trika-dvīpa) ... 113° 30', 11° Peperine ... 115°, 12° 40' Trinesia (group of 3 Islands) ... 116° 20', 12° Leuke ... 118°, 12° Nanigeris ... 122°, 12°

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96. And in the Argaric Gulf : Kory the island (Rāmeśvaram) ... 126° 30', 13°

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(B) India beyond the Ganges¹

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¹ 9. See Renou, *op. cit.*, pp. 42ff. ; Majumdar Sastri, *op. cit.*, pp. 189ff.

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1. India beyond the Ganges is bounded on the west by the river Ganges; on the north by parts of Scythia and Serike (see below), on the east by the Sinai (Chinese) along the Meridian, which extends from the furthest limits of Serike to the Great Gulf, and also by this gulf itself, on the south by the Indian Ocean and part of the Green Sea which stretches from the island of Menouthias in a line parallel to the equator, as far as the regions which lie opposite to the Great Gulf.

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2. The sea coast of this division is thus described. In the Gangetic Gulf beyond the mouth of the Ganges called Antibolei : the coast of the Airrhadoi (Kirāta) : Mentapolis or Pentapolis (Pañcapura; cf. Pañcanagari, modern Panchbibi in the Bogra District) ... 150°, 18° Mouth of the river Katabeda (placed by some near Chaduba on the Arakan coast) ... 151° 20', 17°

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Barakoura, a mart ... 152° 30', 16° Mouth of the river Tokosanna ... 153°, 14° 30'
3. That of Argyra or the Silver country (Rajata-dvipa ; Arakan according to some)— Sambra, a city ... 153° 30', 13° 45' Sada, a city ... 154° 20', 11° 20' Mouth of the river Sados ... 153° 30', 21° 30' Berabonna, a mart ... 155° 30', 10° 20' The mouth of the river Temalos ... 157° 30', 10° Temala, a city ... 157° 30', 9° The cape beyond it ... 157° 20', 8°
4. That of the Besyngeitai (Vesuṅga, Bassein) cannibals on the Sarabakic Gulf (Gulf of Martaban) where there are— Sabara, a city ... 159° 30', 8° 30' Mouth of the river Besynga ... 162° 20', 8° 25' Besynga, a mart ... 162°, 9° Berabai (Verāpatha), a city ... 162° 20', 6° The cape beyond it ... 159°, 4° 40'
5. That of the Golden Khersonese (Malay Peninsula, Suvarṇabhūmi)— Takola (Takkola, in the isthmus of Kra), a mart ... 160°, 4° 15' The cape beyond it ... 158° 40', 2° 40' Mouth of the river Khrysoanas ... 159°, 1° Sabana or Sabara, mart ... 160°, 3° S. L. Mouth of the river Palandas ... 161°, 2° S. L. Cape Maleoukolon ... 163°, 2° S. L. Mouth of the river Attaba ... 164°, 1° S. L. Koli, a town ... 164° 20' on the equator Perimoula ... 163° 15', 2° 20' Perimoulic Gulf ... 168° 30', 4° 15'
6. That of the Lestai (Robbers' country)— Samarade (Ligor in Malay Peninsula) ... 163°, 4° 50' Pagrasa or Patrasa ... 165°, 4° 50' Mouth of the river Sobanos (Suvarṇa) ... 165° 40', 4° 45' Pithonobaste or Thipinobostai, a mart ... 166° 20', 4° 45' Akadra ... 167°, 4° 45' Sabi or Zabai (Campā, wrongly placed), the city ... 168° 40', 40° 45' 7. That of the Great Gulf (Gulf of Siam with the sea extending towards China) :

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| The Great Cape where the Gulf begins | ... | 169° | 30′, | 4° | 15′ |
| Thagora | ... | 168°, | | 6° | |
| Balonga, a metropolis | ... | 167° | 30′, | 7° | |
| Throana | ... | 167°, | | 8° | 30′ |
| Mouth of the river Doanas (Mekong) | ... | 167°, | | 10° | |
| Kortatha or Kordathra, a metropolis | ... | 167°, | | 12° | 30′ |
| Sinda, a town | ... | 167° | 15′, | 16° | 40′ |
| Pagrasa | ... | 167° | 30′, | 14° | 30′ |
| Mouth of the river Dorias | ... | 168°, | | 15° | 30′ |
| Aganagora | ... | 169°, | | 16° | 20′ |
| Mouth of the river Seros | ... | 171° | 30′, | 17° | 20′ |
| The commencement of the Great Gulf towards the Sinai | 173°, | | | 17° | 20′ |

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8. The mountains in this division are thus named— Bepyrrhos, whose extremities lie in 148° 34′, 154° 26° and Maiandros (Mandara, or Mahendra wrongly placed), whose extremities lie in 152° 24°, 160° 16° and Damassa or Dobassa (on the upper Brahmaputra), whose extremities lie in 162° 23°, 166° 33° and the western part of Semanthinos, whose extremities lie in 170° 33°, 180° 26°.

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9. From Bepyrrhos two rivers discharge into the Ganges, of which the more northern has its sources in 148°, 33° and its point of junction with the Ganges in 140° 15′, 30° 20′. The sources of the other river are in 142°, 27° and its point of junction with the Ganges in 144°, 26°

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10. From the Maindros descend the rivers beyond the Ganges as far as the Besynga river; but the river Seros flows from the range of Semanthinos from two sources, of which the most western lies in 170° 30′, 32° and the most eastern in 173° 30′, 30° and their confluence is in 171°, 27°.

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11. From the Damassa range flow the Doanas and Dorias; the Doanas runs as far as to Bepyrrhos, and the Dorias rises in 164° 30′, 28°. Of the two streams which unite to form the Doanas, that from the Damassa range rises in 162°, 27° 30′, and that from Bepyrrhos rises in 153°, 27° 30′. The two streams unite in 160° 20′, 19°. The river Sobanas or Sobanos which flows from Mount Maiandros rises in 163° 30′, 13°.

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12. The rivers which having previously united flow through the Golden Khersonese from the mountain ridges, without name, which overhang the Khersonese—the one flowing into the Khersonese first detaches from it the Attabas in about 161°, 2° 20' and then the Khrysoanas in about 161°, 1° 20' and the other river is the Palandas (cf. the name of Palanda in Section 25 below).

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13. The regions of this Division lying along the course of the Ganges on its eastern side and furthest to the north are inhabited by the Gangenoi (Taṅgaṇa), through whose dominions flows the river Sarabos (Sarayū or Ghogrā), and who have the following towns—

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| Sapolos | ... | 139° | 20', | 35° |
| Storma | ... | 138° | 40', | 34° | 40' |
| Heorta | ... | 138° | 30', | 34° | |
| Rhappha | ... | 137° | 40', | 33° | 40' |

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14. To the south of these are the Maroundai (Muruṇḍa or Puṇḍra) who reach the Gangaridai (Vaṅga), and have the following towns on the east of the Ganges—

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| Boraita | ... | 142° | 20', | 29° | |
| Korygaza | ... | 143° | 30', | 27° | 15' |
| Kondota | ... | 145°, | | 26° | |
| Kelydna | ... | 146°, | | 25° | 30' |
| Aganagora | ... | 146° | 30', | 22° | 30' |
| Talarga or Saloriga | ... | 146° | 40', | 21° | 40' |

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15. Between the Imaos and Bepyrrhos ranges, the Takoraioi are farthest north, and below them are the Korangakaloi or Koranda°, then the Passalai or °dai, after whom to the north of the Maiandros are the Tiladai or Pi° (Kirāta), such being the name applied to the Beseidai or Seisa° (Vasāti), for they are short of stature and broad and shaggy and broad-faced, but of a fair complexion.

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16. Beyond Kirrhadia (Kirāta), in which, they say, the best Malabathrum (tamāla-patra) is produced, the Zamirai or Game°, a race of cannibals, are located near Mount Maiandros.

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17. Beyond the Silver Country, in which there are said to be very many silver mines, is situated, in juxtaposition to the Besyngeitai, the Gold Country (Suvarṇabhūmi), in which there are very many gold mines, and whose inhabitants resemble the Zamirai in being fair-complexioned, shaggy, of squat figure, and flat-nosed.

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18. And, again, between the ranges of Bepyrrhos and Damassa, the country furthest north is inhabited by the Aninakhai or Aminakhai, south of these the Indaprathai (Indraprastha, Indra-dvīpa), after these the Iberingai, then the Dabassai (cf. Damassai), and, up to the Maiandros, the Nangalogai (Nagna-loka), which means ‘the World of the Naked.’

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19. Between the Damassa range and the frontiers of the Sinai are located furthest north the Kakobai, and below them the Basanarai.

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20. Next comes the country of Khalkitis, in which there are very many copper mines. South of this, extending to the Great Gulf, the Koudoutai are and the Barrhai, and, after them, the Indoi or Sin°, and then the Doanai along the river of the same name.

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21. To these succeeds a mountainous country adjoining the Country of the Robbers, wherein are found elephants and tigers. The inhabitants of the Robbers’ Country are reported to be savages, dwelling in caves, and they have skins like the hide of the hippopotamus, which darts cannot pierce through.

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22. The inland towns and villages of this division (Transgangetic India), in addition to those mentioned along the Ganges, are—

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| Selampoura | ... | 148° | 30', | 33° | 20' |
| Kanogiza (Kānyakubja) | ... | 143°, | | 32° | |
| Kassida | ... | 146°, | | 31° | 10' |
| Eldana | ... | 152°, | | 31° | |
| Asanabara | ... | 155°, | | 31° | 30' |
| Arkhinara or °bara | ... | 163°, | | 31° | |
| Ourathenai | ... | 170°, | | 31° | 20' |
| Souanagoura (Suvarṇa-gaura) | ... | 145° | 30', | 29° | 30' |
| Sagoda or Sagonda or Sadoga (Sāketa in the Fyzabad District) | ... | 155° | 20', | 29° | 20' |
| Anina or Anthina | ... | 162°, | | 29° | |
| Salatha | ... | 165° | 40', | 28° | 20' |

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23. Rhadamarkotta or Randamarta, in which there is much nard | ... | 172°, | | 28° | |

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| Athenagouron | ... | 146° | 20', | 27° | |
| Maniaina or Maniataia | ... | 147° | 15', | 24° | 40' |
| Tosalei (Tosalī wrongly placed), a metropolis | ... | 150°, | | 23° | 20' |
| Alosanga | ... | 152°, | | 24° | 15' |
| Adeisaga | ... | 159° | 30', | 23° | |
| Kimara | ... | 170°, | | 23° | 15' |
| Parisara | ... | 179°, | | 21° | 30' |
| Tougma, a metropolis | ... | 152° | 30', | 22° | 15' |
| Arisabion or Are° | ... | 158° | 30', | 22° | 30' |
| Posinara or Pasindara | ... | 162° | 15', | 22° | 50' |

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Pandasa ... 165°, 21° 20' Sipiberis or Sitteberis ... 170°, 23° 15' Triglypton or Triglyphon, also called Trilingon,¹⁰ capital of the kingdom ... 154°, 18° In this part the cocks are said to be bearded, and the crows and parrots white.

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¹⁰ This is often supposed to be the same as Triliṅga (Telengana) or Trikaliṅga, neither of which is however found in the records of the early centuries of the Christian era or as the capital of a country. Of course the location of the place beyond the Ganges is of little importance since Mt. Mahendra or Mandara and Tosali appear to be similarty misplaced. Trikaliṅga is sometimes called Kaliṅgatraya in medieval records (QJBISM, Vol. xii, No. 3, p. 41, verse 4).

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24. Lariagara ... 162° 30', 18° 15' Rhingiberi ... 166°, 18° Agimoitha ... 170° 40', 18° 40' Tomara (known from the Purāṇas) ... 172°, 18° Dasana or Doana or Daona ... 165°, 15° 20' Mareoura also called Malthoura, a metropolis ... 158°, 12° 30' Lasippa or Lasyppa ... 161°, 12° 30' Bareukora or Bareuathra ... 164° 30', 12° 50'

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25. In the Golden Khersonese (see Section 5 above)— Balongka or Kalongka ... 162°, 4° 40' Kokkonagara or Konko° ... 160°, 2° Tharrha (Tharawati in the Pegu province) ... 162°, 1° 20' S Palanda (cf. thename of the river Palandas) ... 161°, 1° 20' S

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26. The islands of the divisions of India we have been describing are said to be these— Bazakata ... 149° 30', 9° 30' Khaline or Saline ... 146°, 9° 20' In this island, some say that there is found in abundance the murex shell-fish and that the inhabitants go naked and are called Aginnatai.

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27. There are three islands called Sindai, inhabited by Cannibals, of which the centre lies in 152°, 8° 40' S; the Agathou Daimonos (Good Demon) Island in 145°, 4° 15'.

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28. A group of five islands, the Bapousai or Bar° (Nicobar Islands), whose inhabitants are said to be cannibals, and the centre of which lies in 152°, 20′, 5° 20′ S. A group of three islands, the Sabadeibai (cf. Yava-dvīpa), inhabited by cannibals, of which the centre lies in 160°, 8° 30′ S.

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29. The island of Iabadios or Sabadios (Yava-dvīpa) which means ‘the Island of Barley’. It is said to be of extraordinary fertility, and to produce very much gold, and to have its capital called Argyre (Silver-town, Rajatapura) in the extreme west of it. It lies in 167°, 8° 30′ S, and the eastern limit lies in 169°, 8° 10′ S.

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30. The Islands of the Satyrs, three in number, of which the centre lies in 171°, 2° 30′ S. The inhabitants are said to have tails like those with which Satyrs are depicted.

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31. There are said to be also ten other islands forming a continuous group called Maniolai, from which ships fastened with iron nails are said to be unable to move away perhaps on account of the magnetic iron in the islands, and hence they are built with wooden bolts. The inhabitants are called Maniolai, and are reputed to be cannibals. The central island lies in 142°, 2° S.

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(C) Some Central Asian Territories

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I. Baktriane (Book VI, Chapter 11)

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1. Baktriane (Bāhlīka) is bounded on the west by Margiane along the side already described, on the north and east by Sogdiane, along the rest of the course of the River Oxos (Vamkṣu, Amu Darya), and on the south by the rest of Areia, extending from the extreme point towards Margiane, the position of which is 109°, 39°, and by the Paropanisadai along the parallel thence prolonged, through where the range of Paropanisos (Hindu Kush) diverges towards the sources of the Oxos which lie in 119° 30′, 39°.

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2. The following rivers which fall into the Oxos flow through Baktriane : the river Okhos whose sources lie in 110°, 39°; and the Dargamanes whose sources lie in 116° 30′, 36° 20′; and the Zariaspis whose sources lie in 113°, 39°; and the Artamis whose sources lie in 114°, 39°; and the Dargoidos whose sources lie in 116°, 39°; and the point where this river joins the Oxos lies in 117° 30′, 44°.

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3. Of the other tributaries, the Artamis and the Zariaspis unite in 113°, 40° 40′ before falling into the Oxos in 112° 30′, 44°.

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4. The Dargamanes and the Okhos also unite in 109°, 40° 30′ before falling into the Oxos in 109°, 44°.

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5. Of the Paropanisos range, the western part is situated in 111° 30′, 39°; and the eastern in 119° 30′, 39°.

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6. The parts of Baktriane in the north and towards the River Oxos are inhabited by the Salaterai, and the Zariaspai, and, to the south of these up towards the Salaterai, the Khomaroi, and below these the Komoi, then the Akinakai, then the Tambyzoi, and, below the Zariaspai, the Tokharoi (Tukhāra), a great people, and, below them, the Marykaioi, and the Skordai, and the Ouarnoi, and still below those the Sabadioi, and the Oreisitoi, and the Amareis.

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7. The towns of Baktriane towards the river Oxos are the following—

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| Kharakharta | ... | 111°, | 44° |
| Zarispa (Zariaspa) or Kharispa | ... | 115°, | 44° |
| Khoana | ... | 117°, | 42° |
| Sourogana | ... | 117° 30′, | 40° 30′ |
| Phratou | ... | 119°, | 39° 20′ |

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8. And near the other rivers are these—

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| Alikhorda | ... | 107°, | 43° 30′ |
| Khomara | ... | 106° 30′, | 43° 30′ |
| Kouriandra | ... | 109° 30′, | 42° 10′ |
| Kauaris | ... | 111° 20′, | 43° |
| Astakana | ... | 112°, | 42° 20′ |
| Ebousmouanasa or Tosmouanassa | ... | 108° 30′, | 41° 20′ |
| Menapia | ... | 113°, | 41° 20′ |
| Eukratidia (named after Eukratides) | ... | 115°, | 42° |
| 9. Baktra (Balkh), the king's residence | ... | 116°, | 41° |
| Estobara | ... | 109° 30′, | 45° 20′ |
| Marakanda (Samarkand) | ... | 112°, | 39° 15′ |
| Marakodra | ... | 115° 20′, | 39° 20′ |

II. Sogdiane (Book VI, Chapter 12)

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The Sogdianoi are bounded on the west by that part of Skythia which extends from the section of the Oxos which is towards Baktriane and Margiane through the Oxeian mountains as far as the section of the river Iaxartes (Syr Darya), which lies in 110°E, 49° N; on the north likewise by a part of Skythia along the section of the Iaxartes extended thence as far as the limit where its course bends, which lies in 120° E, 48° 30' N.; on the east by the Sakai along the bending of the Iaxartes as far as the sources of the bending which lie in 125° E, 43° N, and by the line prolonged from the Sakai to an extreme point which lies in 125° E., 38° 30' N., and on the east and the south and again on the west by Baktriane along the section of the Oxos already mentioned and by the Kaukasian mountains, (eastern extension of the Paropanisos towards the Imaos) especially so-called, and the adjoining line and the limits as stated, and the sources of the Oxos.

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2. The mountains called the Sogdian extend between the two rivers and their extremities lie in 111°, 46°, and in 122°, 46° 30'.

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3. From these mountains, a good many nameless rivers flow in contrary directions to meet these two rivers, and of these nameless rivers one forms the Oxeian Lake, the middle of which lies in 111° E, 45° N, and other two streams descend from the same hilly regions as the Iaxartes—the regions in question are called the Highlands of the Komedai (Gomeda of the Purāṇas and Kiu-mi-t'o of Hiuen-tsang). Each of these streams falls into the Iaxartes; one of them is called Demos and its sources lie in 124°, 43°; its junction with the river Iaxartes occurs in 123°, 47°. The other is the Baskatis whose sources lie in 123°, 43°; its junction with the river Iaxartes occurs in 121°, 47° 30'.

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4. The country towards the Oxeian mountains is possessed by the Paskai, and the parts towards the most northern section of the Iaxartes by the Iatioi, and the Tokharoi (Tukhāra), below whom are the Augaloi; then along the Sogdian mountains the Oxydrangkai and the Drybaktai, and the Kandaroi, and below the mountains the Mardyenoi (Uttara-Madra), and along the Oxos the Oxeianoi and the Khorasmioi (Khiva), and farther east than the above, the Drepsianoi, and adjoining both the rivers, and still further east than the above, the Anieseis along the Iaxartes, and the Kirrhadai or Kirrhodeeis (Kirāta) along the Oxos, and, between the Kaukasos range and the Imaos, the country called Ouandabanda (Badakshan).

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5. The towns of the Sogdianoi in the highlands along the Iaxartes are these—

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| Kyreskhata | ... | 124°, | 43° 40' |
| Along the Oxos— | | | |
| Oxeiana | ... | 117° 30', | 44° 20' |
| Marouka | ... | 117° 15', | 43° 40' |
| Kholbesina | ... | 121°, | 43° |

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6. Between the rivers and higher up—

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| Trybaktra | ... | 112°, | 15', |
| Alexandreia Oxeiane | ... | 113°, | 44° 20' |
| Indikomordana | ... | 115°, | 44° 20' |
| Drepsa or Rhepsa, the metropolis | ... | 120°, | 45° |
| Alexandreia Eskhate (i.e. Ultima ; modern Khojend) | 122°, | 41° | |

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III. The Land of the Sakai or Nomadic Śaka (Book VI, Chapter 13)

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1. The Sakai are bounded on the west by the Sogdianoi along their eastern side already described, on the north by Scythia along the line parallel to the river Iaxartes as far as the limit of the country which lies in 130° E, 49° N, on the east in like manner by Scythia along the meridian lines prolonged from thence and through the adjacent range of mountains called Askatangkas as far as the station on Mount Imaos, whence traders start on their journey to Sera which lies in 140° E, 43° N, and through Mount Imaos as it ascends to the north as far as the limit of the country which lies in 143° E, 35° N, and on the south by Imaos itself along the line adjoining the limits that have been stated.

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2. The country of the Sakai is inhabited by nomads. They have no towns, but dwell in woods and caves. Among the Sakai is the mountain district, already mentioned, of the Komedai (Gomeda), of which the ascent from the Sogdianoi lies in 125°, 43° ; and the parts towards the valley of the Komedai lie in 130°, 39° ; and the so-called Stone Tower lies in 135°, 43°.

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3. The tribes of the Sakai, along the Iaxartes, are the Karatai and the Komarai, and the people who have all the mountain region are the Komedai (Gomeda), and the people along the range of Askatangka, the Massagetai ; and the people between are the Grynaioi Skythai and the Toornai, below whom, along Mount Imaos, are the Byltai (Baltistan).

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IV. Scythia or Śakasthāna within the Imaos (Book VI, Chapter 14)

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1. Scythia within the Imaos is bounded on the west by Sarmatia in Asia along the side already traced, on the north by an unknown land, on the east by Mount Imaos ascending to the north pretty nearly along the meridian of the starting place already mentioned as far as the unknown land—140°, 63°, on the south and also on the east by the Sakai and the Sogdianoi and by Margiane along their meridians already mentioned as far as the Hyrkanian Sea at the mouth of the Oxos, and also by a part of the Hyrkanian Sea lying between the north of the Oxos and the river Rha (Volga) according to such an outline.

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2. The bend of the river Rha which marks the boundary of Sarmatia and Skythia—85°, 54°, with the mouth of the river Rha which lies in 87° 30′, 48° 50′.

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| Mouth of the river Rhymmos | ... | 91°, | 48° 45′ |
| Mouth of the river Daix | ... | 94°, | 48° 45′ |
| Mouth of the river Iaxartes | ... | 97°, | 48° |
| Mouth of the river Iastos | ... | 100°, | 47° 20′ |
| Mouth of the river Polytimetos (Zarafshan or the river of Samarkand) | ... | 103°, | 45° 30′ |
| Aspabota a town | ... | 102°, | 44° |

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after which comes the mouth of the Oxos.

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3. The mountains of Skythia within the Imaos are the more eastern parts of the Hyperborean hills and the mountains called Alana, whose extremities lie in 105°, 59°, and 118°, 59° 30′.

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4. And the Rymmik mountains whose extremities lie in 90°, 54°, and 99°, 47° 30′, from which flow the Rhymmos and some other streams that discharge into the river Rha, uniting with the Daix river.

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5. And the Norosson range, of which the extremities lie in 97°, 53° 30′, and 106°, 52° 30′, and from this range flow the Daix and some other tributaries of the Iaxartes.

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6. And the range of mountains called Aspisia whose extremities lie in 111°, 55° 30′, and 117°, 52° 30′, and from these some streams flow into the river Iaxartes.

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7. And the mountains called Tapoura whose extremities lie in 120°, 56°, and 125°, 49°, from which also some streams flow into the Iaxartes.

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8. In addition to these, in the depth of the region of the streams are the Syeba mountains whose extremities lie in 121°, 58°, and 132°, 62° ; and the mountains called the Anarea whose extremities lie in 130°, 56°, and 137°, 50°, after which is the bend in the direction of Imaos continuing it towards the north.

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9. All the territory of this Skythia in the north, adjoining the unknown regions, is inhabited by the people commonly called the Alanoi Skythai and the Souobenoi and the Alanorsoi, and the country below these by the Saitianoi and the Massaioi and the Syeboi, and along the Imaos on the outer side—the Tektosakes, and near the most eastern sources of the river Rha—the Rhoboskoi, below whom—the Asmanoi.

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10. Then the Paniardoi, below whom, more towards the river, the country of Kanodipsa, and below it—the Koraxoi, then the Orgasoi, after whom as far as the sea—the Erymmoi, to the east of whom are the Asiotai, then the Aorsoi, after whom are the Iaxartai, a great race seated along their homonymous river as far as to where it bends towards the Tapoura mountains, and again below the Saitianoi are the Mologenoi, below whom, as far as the Rymmik range, are the Samnitai.

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