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A History of Indian Literature v1.c9.s3: The Principal Narrative of the Mahābhārata

A History of Indian Literature v1.c9.s3

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The Principal Narrative of the Mahābhārata

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Years ago Adolf Holtzmann (Senior) undertook the bold endeavour "to open up for the first time for German poetry lovers, the essence of the Mahābhārata, the old Indian national epic itself."² He started from the undoubtedly correct point of view that the Mahābhārata is not "*the* Indian epic," but that rather only "the remains, the ruins of the ancient Indian heroic songs ........, after much retouching, extension, and disfigurement, are contained in the Mahābhārata." But with enviable self-confidence he believed himself to be endowed with the ability to reconstruct the *ancient original* heroic poem from these retouched and disfigured "ruins." He thought that by means of omissions, abridgments, and *alterations*, he had created in German verse an Indian heroic poem, which gave a better idea of the actual Mahābhārata as sung by the ancient Indian bards, than a literal translation of the existing original text would probably give. Now Holtzmann, with ingenious insight and deep poetic feeling, certainly often hit upon the right thing, but then he departed so arbitrarily from the Sanskrit text, that his work can only be regarded as a very free recast of the ancient Mahābhārata, but in no case as a faithful representation of it. In fact Holtzmann attempted an impossible task. Every endeavour *to reconstruct* "the ancient Indian national epic itself" in its original shape will always be attended by so great an element of arbitrariness, that it can only have a purely subjective value.

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² Indische Sagen. Part 2: Die Kuruinge. Karlsruhe 1846.

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On the other hand, it is comparatively easy to extract *a kernel* from the enormous mass of songs of the Mahābhārata, namely, *the narrative of the battle of the Kauravas and the Pāṇḍavas*, which in any case formed the subject of the actual epic. This shall be done in the following, necessarily short outline. We trace the story of the great fight, taking into consideration also, as far as possible, the important secondary stories referring to the principal heroes. In this we shall not digress into doubtful hypotheses upon the "original" epic, but faithfully follow *the Mahābhārata text now available to us, leaving aside*, for the present, everything which has no reference to the principal narrative.

The Descent of the Kauravas and the Pāṇḍavas

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In the land of the Bharatas there once ruled a king of the house of the Kurus, Śāntanu by name. By the goddess Gaṅgā¹ who had become a mortal woman, this king had a son called *Bhīṣma*, whom he had appointed as his successor to the throne. One day, when the latter had already grown up into a superb hero endowed with all warlike virtues, Sāntanu met the beautiful fisher girl Satyavatī, fell in love with her and desired her as a wife. Her father, the king of the fisherfolk, would, however, only give her to him on condition that the son born by his daughter should inherit the throne. But Śāntanu would not consent to this, though he found it difficult to give up his beloved. Now Bhīṣma soon noticed how depressed his father was, and when he had learned the cause of this depression, he himself went to the king of the fishermen to woo Satyavatī on his father’s behalf. He not only announces his intention to renounce his right to the throne, but takes a vow of chastity, so as to make it impossible for any son of his to claim the throne, whereupon the fisherman gladly gives him his daughter. So Śāntanu marries Satyavatī and has two sons by her, *Citrāṅgada* and *Vicitravīrya*. Soon after this, Śāntanu died and young Citrāṅgada was killed in battle by a Gandharva: then Bhīṣma, as the senior of the family, annointed Vicitravīrya as king. The latter, however, died young and without issue, though he had two wives. In order that the race may not die out, Satyavatī begs Bhīṣma to beget descendants by the surviving widows of Vicitravīrya, in accordance with the ancient usage of the Levirate. But Bhīṣma, mindful of his vow of chastity, declares that though the sun may give up its brilliancy, the fire its heat, the moon may give up the coolness of its rays, the god Indra his bravery, and the god Dharma ¹ his justice, he could never break his promise. Then Satyavatī remembers her illegitimate son *Vyāsa*, and with Bhīṣma’s consent invites him to see to the propagation of the race. And as we have already seen,² the saint Vyāsa begets *Dhṛtarāṣṭra*, *Pāṇḍu* and *Vidura*. As Dhṛtarāṣṭra was born blind, the younger brother Pāṇḍu became king. Dhṛtarāṣṭra married *Gāndhārī*, daughter of the king of Gāndhāra, and she bore him a hundred sons, the eldest of whom was named *Duryodhana*. Pāṇḍu had two wives, *Pṛthā* or *Kuntī*, daughter of a king of the Yādavas, and *Mādrī*, sister of *Śalya*, king of the Madras. Kuntī bore him three sons: *Yudhiṣṭhira*, the eldest, *Arjuna* and *Bhīma*, who was born on the same day as Duryodhana, whilst Mādrī gave birth to the twins *Nakula* and *Sahadeva*.

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¹ Goddess of the River Ganges.

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¹ The god of death, and at the same time the god of justice.

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² See above, pp. 322f.

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Here the epic relates the following very fantastic story (which could scarcely have belonged to the old poem), according to which these five principal heroes of the epic are supposed to have been begotten not *by*, but *on behalf of Pāṇḍu*. Pāṇḍu killed a pair of antelopes at the time of copulation. In reality, however, it was a ṛṣi who had assumed the form of an antelope in order to enjoy love. This ṛṣi now pronounces a curse that Pāṇḍu shall die during the enjoyment of love. Pāṇḍu therefore determines to lead the life of an ascetic, and to renounce sexual pleasures. In order to provide descendants, however, Kuntī invokes the gods to beget children with her. Dharma, the god of justice, begets Yudhiṣṭhira with her, Vāyu, the god of the wind, begets strong Bhīma and Indra, the king of the gods, begets Arjuna. At Kuntī's request, the two Aśvins cohabit with Mādrī, and beget the twins Nakula and Sahadeva with her.

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*The Pāṇḍavas and Kauravas at the Court of Dhṛtarāṣṭra.*

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When Pāṇḍu died soon afterwards, blind Dhṛtarāṣṭra assumed the reins of government. The five sons of Pāṇḍu accompanied their mother Kuntī—Pāṇḍu's second wife Mādrī had thrown herself on to his funeral pyre—to the court of king Dhṛtarāṣṭra at Hastināpura, where they were educated with the princes, their cousins.

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Even in their juvenile games, the sons of Pāṇḍu excelled over those of Dhṛtarāṣṭra, arousing the jealousy of the latter. Bhīma, in particular, evinced great exuberance of spirits and gave many an exhibition of unruly strength which were most displeasing to Dhṛtarāṣṭra's children. For instance, if the children climbed a tree, he would shake it so that his cousins tumbled down together with their fruits. For this reason Duryodhana hated Bhīma intensely, and made several attempts on his life without however being able to harm him. The boys grew up, and two famous Brahmans, skilled in the use of weapons, Kṛpa and Droṇa, were engaged as their tutors. There were among their pupils besides the sons of Dhṛtarāṣṭra and of Pāṇḍu, also Aśvatthāman, one of Droṇa's sons, and Karṇa, son of a Sūta or charioteer. Duryodhana and Bhīma soon became Droṇa's best pupils with the clubs, Aśvatthāman in magic arts, Nakula and Sahadeva in sword exercises, and Yudhiṣṭhira in chariot fighting. But Arjuna was not only the best archer, but excelled all the others in every respect. For this reason the sons of Dhṛtarāṣṭra were extremely jealous of him.

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When the princes had completed their studies, Droṇa organised a tournament at which his pupils were to show their skill. It is a brilliant and festive assembly; the king, the queens and numerous heroes are present. Bhīma and Duryodhana give a performance of club-fighting which threatens to become so deadly earnest that the combatants have to be separated. Arjuna is universally praised for his skill in archery. But Karṇa also enters the ring, and executes the same feats as Arjuna, which greatly angers the latter, whilst Duryodhana joyfully embraces Karṇa and swears eternal friendship. Karṇa challenges Arjuna to a duel, but as the descendant of a charioteer he is laughed to scorn by the Pāṇḍavas.

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*Yudhiṣṭhira becomes heir to the throne. Conspiracy against him and his brothers. (The lac house.)*

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After a year had elapsed, Dhṛtarāṣṭra appointed as heir to the throne, Yudhiṣṭhira, the first-born of the Kuru family, who had distinguished himself by his bravery as well as by all other virtues. The other Pāṇḍavas perfected themselves still further in arms, and even went forth on victorious campaigns of conquest off their own bat. When Dhṛtarāṣṭra learned of these exploits of the Pāṇḍavas who were growing mightier and mightier, he felt some anxiety as to the future of his own line. Therefore when Duryodhana, his younger brother *Duḥśāsana*, his friend Karṇa and his maternal uncle *Śakuni* concerted a plot against the Pāṇḍavas, they found a willing supporter in the aged king. They persuaded Dhṛtarāṣṭra to remove the Pāṇḍavas to Vāraṇāvata on some pretext or other. At Vāraṇāvata Duryodhana engaged a skilful builder to construct a house of lac and of other highly inflammable materials, in which the Pāṇḍavas were to live. At night when they would all be asleep, the house was to be set on fire, so that the Pāṇḍavas would meet their doom. But Vidura tells Yudhiṣṭhira privately of the treacherous plan, and for this communication he makes use of a Mleccha language, *i.e.* the language of a non-Indian tribe, which was not understood by the others. Now to avoid arousing suspicion, as they feared that Duryodhana would otherwise have them killed in some other fashion by assassins, they pretend to fall in with the plan, journey to Vāraṇāvata and occupy the lac house. However, they flee into the forest by a subterranean passage which they had previously had dug, after setting fire to the house, in which, in addition to the builder, there is only a drunken low-caste woman lying asleep with her five sons. While everyone believes that the Pāṇḍavas have been burned with their mother Kuntī, and the funeral ceremonies are being performed at Dhṛtarāṣṭra's court, the five brothers are wandering about with their mother in the forest on the other side of the Ganges. At dead of night they are in the midst of dense jungle, weary, hungry and thirsty. Kuntī complains of thirst, and Bhīma conducts his mother and four brothers to a banyan tree where they are to rest while he is seeking water. Following the water-birds, he comes to a lake, where he bathes and drinks and dips his upper garments into the water, so as to take water to the others. He hastens back, to find all his people asleep under the tree. At the sight of his mother and brothers lying asleep thus, he bemoans their sad fate in bitter words.

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*Hidimba, the giant, and his sister.*

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Near this banyan tree there lurks a horrible, man-eating giant, the *Rākṣasa Hiḍimba*. He smells human flesh, and from a high tree sees the sleeping forms. His mouth waters for the delicacy which has so long been denied to him, and he asks his sister, the giantess Hiḍimbā, to go and see what manner of people they be; they would then enjoy a feast of fresh human flesh and blood together, and dance and sing merrily afterwards. The giantess approaches them, but no sooner does she set eyes on Bhīma than she is seized by violent love for the strong young hero. She therefore transforms herself into a beautiful human woman and steps smilingly towards Bhīma, tells him that this forest is haunted by a man-eating Rākṣasa, her brother, who has sent her here, but that she loves Bhīma and desires no other man but him as her lord, that he may take delight in her, and that she will rescue him. Bhīma replies that it would not enter his head to yield to passion, and to leave his mother and brothers in the lurch. Hiḍimbā answers that he may awaken his relatives by all means, and she will save them all. Bhīma retorts, however, that he would not dream of awakening his mother and brothers from their sweet slumber: Rākṣasas, Yakṣas (elves), Gandharvas and such-like riff-raff do not alarm him in the least, and he will find a way of dealing with the man-eater himself. At this juncture the giant Hiḍimba, thinking that his sister is too long away, appears in person, and would slay the love-sick Hiḍimbā in his anger. But Bhīma confronts him and challenges him to fight. After a terrible conflict, during which the brothers awake, Bhīma slays the giant. When he is about to despatch Hiḍimbā likewise, Yudhiṣṭhira exhorts him not to slay a woman. At her earnest entreaties, he at last agrees to be united to her until a son is born to her. Yudhiṣṭhira arranges that Bhīma may stay with the giantess all day, but that he must always return before sunset. So Hiḍimbā flies through the air with Bhīma to the pleasant hill-tops, where they give themselves up to the pleasures of love, until she conceives, and bears a son, who grows into a mighty Rākṣasa. They call him *Ghaṭotkaca*, and later on, in the great fight, he does good service to the Pāṇḍavas.

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*The giant Baka and the Brahman family.*

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Disguised as ascetics, the Pāṇḍavas now wander from forest to forest, experiencing many an adventure, and come at last to a city Ekacakrā where, without being recognised, they stay at a Brahman's house. During the day they beg for their food and in the evening they bring it home, where Kuntī divides all the food into two halves, the one for Bhīma, and the other for all the rest. One day Kuntī is alone at home with Bhīma. Loud groans and lamentations are heard proceeding from the apartments of the Brahman whose hospitality they are enjoying. First of all they hear the Brahman give vent to bitter lamentations over the lot of humanity in general, and declare that it would be best for him to perish together with his family, for he would never have the heart to sacrifice his faithful wife, his beloved daughter or his dear little son, and yet on the other hand, were he to die alone, he would be leaving his dear ones to sure distress. Then the Brahman's wife begins to speak, and says that he must live on, so as to provide for his children and to preserve the race: she herself, having borne him a son and a daughter, has fulfilled the purpose of her life, and can die in peace. Were he to die, she could never nourish and protect her two children single-handed; she would be able neither to protect her daughter from unworthy men nor to give her son an education worthy of a Brahman. Whereas he could take a second wife, she herself, as a widow, would lead but a pitiable existence.

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"As birds swoop greedily down upon a piece of flesh that is cast away, thus do men abuse a woman who is bereaved of her husband." Therefore she will sacrifice her life. The daughter, who has listened to what her parents have said, now has her say, and seeks to prove that for her alone is it fitting to die for the family. "Is it not said: A son is as one's own self, a wife is a friend, but a daughter is misery. Rid thyself of this misery, therefore, and let me fulfil my duty." While these three converse in this fashion, and finally burst into tears, the little son, his eyes wide open, approaches each one individually, and says, smiling, in his sweet, childish voice: "Do not weep, father! Do not weep, mother! Do not weep, sister!" And the little fellow gaily takes a blade of grass from the ground, saying: "I am going to kill the man-eating Rākṣasa with this!’’ And in the midst of their sore distress, their hearts were filled with joy when they heard the boy’s sweet voice. It is this moment which Kuntī, the mother of the Pāṇḍavas, chooses to enter and to enquire what it is that has gone wrong. She is then told that a man-eating Rākṣasa, the giant Baka, lurks in the vicinity of the city, and that at certain intervals the inhabitants of the city are obliged to supply him with a cartload of rice, two buffaloes and a human being by way of tribute. The families are chosen in rotation, and it is now the turn of the family in question.

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Then Kuntī consoles the Brahman and suggests that one of her five sons shall pay the tribute to the Rākṣasa. But the Brahman will not hear of a Brahman, and a guest at that, sacrificing his life for him. Then Kuntī explains to him that her son is a great hero, which fact is not to be disclosed, and that he will surely slay the Rākṣasa. Bhīma is prepared to carry out his mother’s proposal immediately, and the next morning he drives into the forest haunted by the monster, with the cart containing the food intended for the Rākṣasa. As soon as he reaches the forest, he begins to eat the food himself (this is most humorously described), and is in no wise perturbed by the stormy approach of the giant. Even when the infuriated Rākṣasa showers blows on him with both hands, he calmly continues eating. It is not until he has eaten everything up that he prepares for the combat. They uproot the mightiest trees in the forest and hurl them at each other. A stupendous struggle then ensues, the result of which is that Bhīma breaks the giant in two across his knee. Bhīma extracts a promise from the remaining Rākṣasas, the relatives and subjects of Baka, that they will never again kill a human being, and he then returns to his brothers. There is great joy in the city, but the Pāṇḍavas preserve their incognito.

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*The self-choice and marriage of Draupadī*

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After a time the Pāṇḍavas decide to leave Ekacakrā and to migrate to Pāñcāla. On the road thither they hear that *Drupada*, king of the Pāñcālas, is about to hold a “self-choice”¹ for his daughter. The brothers decide to take part in the festival, and, disguised as Brahmans, they go to the residential town of Drupada, where they live unrecognised at the house of a potter, and beg for their food as Brahmans. Now Drupada had had a very stiff bow made, and had had a target set high up in the air by means of a mechanical contrivance, and he proclaimed that only the hero who could draw the bow and hit the mark, would be qualified to win his daughter Kṛṣṇā at the Svayamvara. Princes of all lands, among them the Kauravas, Duryodhana and his brothers and Karṇa, accept King Drupada's invitation and assemble in the festively decorated hall in which the self-choice of a husband is to take place. Innumerable Brahmans, too, flock in as spectators, and among them are the five Pāṇḍavas. There are brilliant festivities for several days, and the foreign kings and the Brahmans enjoy splendid hospitality as guests. At last, on the sixteenth day, attended by the usual ceremonies, the radiant *Kṛṣṇā*, beautifully dressed and adorned, steps into the hall, holding the garland of flowers in her hand. Her brother *Dhṛṣṭadyumna* proclaims in a loud voice:

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¹ *Svayaṃvara*, *i.e.* “bride’s self-choice,” is a form of engagement or betrothal in which the king’s daughter herself chooses her husband from amongst the assembled princes and heroes (after her father has issued a solemn invitation), placing a garland around the neck of the chosen one, whereupon the marriage takes place. While the Svayaṃvara is very frequently described in *epic poetry*, this custom is not mentioned at all in the brahmanical *law-books*, which otherwise treat the various kinds of betrothal in great detail. *Cf.* J. J. Meyer, Das Weib im altindischen Epos, pp. 60 ff.

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"Mark this bow, assembled monarchs, and the target hung on high,
Through yon whirling pierced discus let five glitt'ring arrows fly!
Whoso born of noble lineage, hits the far suspended aim,
Let him stand and as his guerdon Drupad's beauteous
maiden claim!"¹

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¹ Translated by Romesh Dutt, Maha-Bharata, p. 19.

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After this he tells his sister the names of all the kings present, beginning with Duryodhana. All of them are at once enamoured of the charming *Kṛṣṇā*, each is jealous of the other, and every single individual hopes to win her. One after the other now attempts to bend the bow, but none succeed. Then Karṇa steps forward; he has already bent the bow, and is prepared to hit the mark, when Kṛṣṇā calls out in a loud voice: "My choice shall not be a charioteer." With a bitter laugh and a glance towards the sun, Karṇa throws the bow down again. In vain do the mighty kings Śiśupāla, Jarāsandha and Śalya strive to bend the bow. Then Arjuna arises from the midst of the Brahmans. Amid loud murmurs of applause from those who admire the stately youth, and amid the sounds of disapproval of those who are angry at the presumption of a Brahman in entering the lists with warriors, he strides to the bow, bends it in the twinkling of an eye, and shoots the target down. When Kṛṣṇā sees the godlike youth, she hands him the garland joyfully, and followed by the princess, Arjuna leaves the hall.

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However, when the assembled kings perceive that Drupada really intends to give his daughter to the Brahman, they take it as an insult; for in their opinion, the self-choice of a husband is for warriors, but not for Brahmans. They attempt to kill Drupada, but Bhīma and Arjuna hasten to his aid. Bhīma uproots a mighty tree, and stands there, terrible as the god of death. Arjuna stands beside him, with the bent bow. Karṇa fights with Arjuna, and Śalya with Bhīma. After a hard fight, Karṇa and Śalya confess themselves beaten. The kings give up the fight, and return to their homes. But the Pāṇḍavas go on their way with Kṛṣṇā, and wend their way to the potter's house, where Kuntī anxiously awaits them. Arjuna now declares in the presence of his mother and his brothers that he will not wed Kṛṣṇā, daughter of Drupada, whom he has won, for himself alone, but that, in accordance with the ancient custom of their family, she must become the common wife of all five brothers.

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Among those present at the self-choice was Kṛṣṇa, the chieftain of a clan of the Yādavas and the cousin of the Pāṇḍavas (for Vasudeva, Kṛṣṇa's father, was Kuntī's brother). He was the only one who had recognised the Pāṇḍavas, in spite of their disguise. He therefore followed the Pāṇḍavas, accompanied by his brother *Baladeva*, visited them at the potter's house, and disclosed to them that he was their relative. This greatly rejoiced the Pāṇḍavas, but in order that they might not be recognised, Kṛṣṇa and Baladeva soon took their departure.

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Prince Dhṛṣṭadyumna had also secretly followed the Pāṇḍavas in order to find out who the hero who had won his sister for his consort, really was. He conceals himself in the potter's house, and observes how the brothers return home and respectfully greet their mother, how Kuntī instructs Draupadī¹ regarding the preparation and distribution of the food, how after the evening meal they betake themselves to rest, the youngest brother spreading a mattress of kuśa grass whereon the five brothers stretch themselves in turn, each one on his antelope-skin, whilst their mother and Draupadī put up their beds at their head and foot respectively: and he hears how the brothers still regale one another with all kinds of conversation upon arms and warlike deeds before falling asleep. Then Dhṛṣṭadyumna hastens back to his father, to tell him that, judging from their conversation, the supposed Brahmans must be warriors, at which the king rejoices exceedingly. The next morning, Drupada invites the Pāṇḍavas to the palace, in order to celebrate his daughter's wedding with due festivity. It is only now that Yudhiṣṭhira informs him that they are the sons of Pāṇḍu, whom people had thought dead; Drupada is much rejoiced at this, for it had always been his wish to have the brave Arjuna as a son-in-law. Just when he is about to perform the ceremonial marriage of his daughter with Arjuna, he is, however, somewhat astonished and disillusioned to learn from Yudhiṣṭhira that Kṛṣṇā must become the common wife of all five brothers. The scruples which he puts forward are, however, appeased when he learns of the ancient family custom of the Pāṇḍavas, and Draupadī is wedded before the sacred fire first to Yudhiṣṭhira as the eldest brother, and then to the other four brothers in order of age.¹ Kuntī blesses her daughter-in-law, and Kṛṣṇa sends rich and most costly wedding presents to the newly-wedded people.

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¹ Kṛṣṇā, "the black one" is usually called Draupadī, *i.e.* "daughter of Drupada."

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¹ In this marriage to five husbands, the epic has indubitably faithfully preserved an old feature of the legend; for polyandry, or rather group-marriage, of which the marriage of the Pāṇḍavas affords an example, though still occurring in certain regions of India at the present day, was by no means attested as a legitimate form of marriage in ancient India, and is directly opposed to the brahmanical views. When Drupada says (I, 197, 27): "The law teaches that *one* man has many wives; but one has never heard that *one* woman has many men as her husbands," he only gives expression to the general Indian opinion. When, in spite of this, the five principal heroes of the epic have only *one* wife between them, it is a proof that this feature was so closely interwoven with the whole legend and the ancient epic, that, even at a later time, when the Mahābhārata acquired a more and more brahmanical character and became a religious text book, the elimination of this feature could not be dreamed of. All that was done was to try to justify the marriage to five husbands, by means of several clumsily inserted stories. On one occasion Vyāsa relates the silly story of a maiden who could not obtain a husband, and implored the god Śiva to procure a husband for her. Now because she had cried *five times* "Give me a husband," Śiva promises her five husbands—in a future birth. This maiden is reborn as Kṛṣṇā, Drupada's daughter, and therefore receives the five Pāṇḍavas as husbands. A second story is not much more ingenious. The Pāṇḍavas, who live in the potter's house as begging Brahmans, come home with Draupadī, and announce to their mother that they have brought "the alms" which they have collected while out begging. Without looking up, Kuntī says, according to her custom, "Enjoy it all together." Only then does she notice that "the alms" is a woman, and is very much perturbed; but the word of a mother may not be made untrue, and therefore the five brothers must enjoy Draupadī in common. A third story, which Vyāsa related to Drupada, is the Śivaitic "Five Indra story" (pañcendropākhyānam), a most fantastic and confused account, according to which Indra, as a punishment for having offended Śiva, is reborn on earth in five parts and an incarnation of Lakṣmī or Śrī (goddess of good fortune and beauty) is destined to be his wife. The five Pāṇḍavas are incarnations of the *one* Indra, Draupadī is an incarnation of Lakṣmī, so that Draupadī has actually only *one* husband! There is not even an attempt made to bring these three justification stories into accord with one another or with the principal narrative. On the other hand, it is repeatedly distinctly emphasized that it was an *ancient family custom*, not indeed a general Indian custom, but a special *family usage of the Pāṇḍavas*. In Buddhist and Jain stories, Draupadī's self-choice of a husband is so described that she chooses, not Arjuna, but all the five Pāṇḍavas simultaneously. Strangely enough, even a few European scholars have tried to *interpret* and justify the marriage to five husbands mythologically, allegorically and symbolically, instead of accepting it as an ethnological fact. (Cf. my "Notes on the Mahābhārata," **JRAS**, 1897, pp. 733 ff.).

The Pāṇḍavas get their kingdom back

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The report that the Pāṇḍavas are still alive and that it was Arjuna who had won Draupadī at the self-choice, is soon noised abroad. Duryodhana and his friends return sadly to Hāstināpura, and they are much cast down by the Pāṇḍavas' having gained two mighty allies by their marriage, namely, Drupada and the Pañcālas, and Kṛṣṇa and the Yādavas. Duryodhana is of opinion that they should be on their guard against the Pāṇḍavas, and suggests that they should get rid of them by treachery. Karṇa, on the other hand, is for open combat. But Bhīṣma, supported by Vidura and Droṇa, advises Dhṛtarāṣṭra to cede one-half of the kingdom to the Pāṇḍavas and to live peaceably with them. Dhṛtarāṣṭra agrees to this proposal and cedes one-half of his kingdom to the Pāṇḍavas, and it is arranged that they shall settle in the desert of Khāṇḍavaprastha. Yudhiṣṭhira gladly accepts the offer, and, accompanied by Kṛṣṇa, the Pāṇḍavas journey to Khāṇḍavaprastha, where they found as their residence the great city and fort of *Indraprastha* (near modern Delhi).

Arjuna's banishment and adventures

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The Pāṇḍavas live happy and contented in Indraprastha with their common wife. In order to avoid any jealousy among them, they had mutually agreed (on the advice of the divine sage Nārada) that if any one of the brothers should intrude on a private interview of any other of the brothers with Draupadī, the former should go into banishment and lead a life of chastity for twelve years. Owing to this understanding they lived at peace with one another.

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One day some robbers steal some cattle from a Brahman, who comes running into the palace violently reproaching the king for not protecting his subjects sufficiently. Arjuna wishes to hasten to his aid immediately. Chance will have it that the weapons are hanging in a room in which Yudhiṣṭhira happens to be together with Draupadī. Arjuna is in a dilemma. Is he to fail in his duty of a warrior towards the Brahman, and to break the rule with regard to their common wife, or is he to violate the former so as to be able to conform to the latter? He decides to enter the room and fetch the weapons; he pursues the robbers and restores the cattle to the Brahman. Then he returns home and announces to Yudhiṣṭhira that, in accordance with the agreement, he will go into banishment for twelve years. Though Yudhiṣṭhira tries to restrain him, as he had taken no offence whatsoever, Arjuna nevertheless retires to the forest, on the principle that what is right is right, whatever the circumstances.

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Here he has many adventures. On one occasion he is bathing in the Ganges, and is about to come out of the water, after sacrificing to the fathers, when *Ulūpī*, the daughter of a Nāga king, draws him down into the kingdom of the Nāgas (snake demons). She explains to him that she has fallen in love with him, and begs him to take delight in her. Arjuna replies that he cannot do this, as he has taken the vow of chastity. But the snake virgin objects, saying that this vow can only refer to Draupadī, and that, as a matter of fact, it is his duty as a warrior to aid the unfortunate; and that if he would not grant her request, she would end her life—he must therefore save her life. Arjuna is powerless against these arguments, and "keeping his eye on his duty," he grants beautiful Ulūpī's request and spends a night with her.

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On another occasion his wanderings bring him to Citravāhana, king of Maṇipūra, and he falls in love with the king's beautiful daughter *Citrāṅgadā*. But she is a "son-daughter," ¹ and the king only gives her to him on condition that a son born of her be accounted as his (Citravāhana's) son. Arjuna agrees to this, and lives with her in Maṇipūra² for three years. After she has borne a son, he takes leave of her and continues his wanderings.

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¹ A *putrikā* or "son daughter" is a daughter whose son does not belong to the husband, but to the *father* of the girl. For if a man has no son, he can appoint his daughter as *putrikā*, whereby a son born of her becomes the continuator of *her father's* race, *i.e.* he is bound in duty to the ancestral sacrifice and entitled to the inheritance.

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² We hear no more of the vow of chastity.

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After having visited various holy places and had many more adventures, he meets Kṛṣṇa and visits him in his city of Dvārakā, where he is received with great festivity. A few days later there was a great feast of the Vṛṣṇis and Andhakas—clans of the Yādavas—on the hill Raivataka. Noblemen and citizens go forth with music, singing and dancing, and there is great merriment. Baladeva, Kṛṣṇa’s brother, gets drunk with his wife Revatī; Ugrasena, king of the Vṛṣṇis, comes with his thousand wives, and many other princes with their wives. On this occasion Arjuna sees *Subhadrā*, Kṛṣṇa’s beautiful sister, and becomes enamoured of her. He asks Kṛṣṇa how he can obtain her, and the latter advises him to carry her off by force after the fashion of warriors, as a self-choice is always an uncertain affair¹). Then Arjuna sends a messenger to Yudhiṣṭhira to ask his permission for the abduction of Subhadrā. Yudhiṣṭhira gives his consent, and Arjuna goes forth in his chariot in full battle array, as though he were going to the chase. Subhadrā is taking a stroll on Raivataka, and just as she is about to return to Dvārakā, Arjuna seizes her, places her on his chariot and drives off with her in the direction of Indraprastha. Great excitement prevails in Dvārakā; the drunken Baladeva is furious at Arjuna’s having violated the laws of hospitality. But Kṛṣṇa pacifies his relatives by telling them that Arjuna has not offended them at all. On the contrary, he had not considered the Yādavas so avaricious that they would sell a maiden like a head of cattle, and he had not wanted to take the chance of an uncertain self-choice, so his only course had been to carry Subhadrā off. There was no objection to the marriage itself, but they should recall Arjuna, and effect a reconciliation. This actually takes place, and Arjuna and Subhadrā are married. He stays in Dvārakā for another year, enjoying the society of Subhadrā. He spends the remainder of the twelve years at the sacred place of Puṣkara, after which he returns to Indraprastha. Draupadī reproaches him for his marriage with Subhadrā, but is appeased when Subhadrā offers herself to Draupadī as a maidservant. Thenceforth Draupadī, Subhadrā and Kuntī live happily together. Subhadrā bore Arjuna a son, *Abhimanyu*, who became a favourite with his father and his uncles, but Draupadī bore *one* son to each of the five Pāṇḍavas.

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¹ Obviously the Yādavas were a rough shepherd-tribe, with whom *marriage by theft* was still legitimate.

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*Yudhiṣṭhira becomes the Ruler of the World*

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King Yudhiṣṭhira reigned justly and piously in his kingdom, and his subjects, who loved him devotedly, lived in peace and happiness. The king’s brothers, too, led a happy life. But Arjuna enjoyed a still more intimate friendship with Kṛṣṇa. Once when the two friends were conversing in the groves by the Jumnā (where they had veritable orgies with many beautiful women, and in which even Draupadī and Subhadrā participated) the god Agni approached them in the form of a Brahman, and besought them to assist him in burning the Khāṇḍava forest. The fact was that the god had indigestion after eating the numerous offerings at some great sacrifice, and Brahman had told him that he must burn the Khāṇḍava forest if he wished to recover from it: but every time he had attempted to set the forest afire, the forest animals extinguish it again. Arjuna and Kṛṣṇa are to prevent this, and Agni procures heavenly weapons for them for the purpose: for Arjuna the mighty bow Gāṇḍīva with two inexhaustible quivers and a splendid chariot with silvery-white horses and recognisable from afar by a monkey banner; and for Kṛṣṇa a sure discus and an irresistible club. With these weapons they support Agni and kill all creatures which attempt to escape from the burning forest. They spare only the demon Maya, who is a great artist among the heavenly host.[^1)

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In thankfulness at the sparing of his life, the demon Maya builds for Yudhiṣṭhira a marvellous palace with all kinds of most ingenious devices. After some time Yudhiṣṭhira, in agreement with Kṛṣṇa, decided to offer the great sacrifice for the consecration of a king (rājasūya). Now only a ruler of the world, a great conqueror, is entitled to offer this sacrifice. But as Jarāsandha, king of Magadha, is the mightiest ruler for the time being, he must be removed. He is killed in a duel with Bhīma. After this, Arjuna, Bhīma, Sahadeva and Nakula go forth on victorious campaigns of conquest in the north, east, south and west respectively, on the strength of which Yudhiṣṭhira becomes possessed of a world-kingdom. The kings' consecration sacrifice may now be offered, and it is celebrated with great pomp. Numerous kings, including the Kauravas, are invited to it. At the close of the sacrifice, gifts of honour are distributed. At Bhīṣma's suggestion, Kṛṣṇa is to receive the first gift of honour. Śiśupāla, king of Cedi, objects to this. A quarrel ensues, ending in the death of Śiśupāla at the hands of Kṛṣṇa.

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When the sacrifice is accomplished, the foreign kings take their departure. Kṛṣṇa, too, returns to his home. Only Duryodhana and his uncle Śakuni stay on in the palace of the Pāṇḍavas for some time. When viewing the superb building Duryodhana meets with all kinds of mishaps.

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[^1): Here ends the *Ādiparvan*, or First book of the Mahābhārata.

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He mistakes a crystal surface for a lake, and undresses in order to bathe; on the other hand, he mistakes an artificial pond for dry land, and has an involuntary dip, at which Bhīma and Arjuna burst out laughing loudly.¹ This scorn wounded Duryodhana very deeply, for he was already consumed with envy. It is with feelings of the deepest envy and hate that he takes leave of his cousins and returns to Hastināpura.

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¹ Duryodhana's adventures in the marvellous palace of Yudhiṣṭhira remind us of the story of the Queen of Sheba, who mistakes a glass floor in Solomon's palace for a sheet of water, and bares her legs. Cf. Qurān, 27, 38; W. Hertz Gesammelte Abhandlungen, (1905), p. 427; Grierson, JRAS 1913, 684 f. There is also a similar story in the legend of the wonders of the new Babylon, built by Nebuchadnezzar; s. A. Wesselofsky in Archiv für slavische Philologie II, 310 ff., 321.

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*The game of dice.*

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Duryodhana tells his tale of woe to his uncle Śakuni in bitter words. He tells him that he cannot bear the disgrace of seeing his enemies celebrating such triumphs; and that, as he cannot see any way of getting at the Pāṇḍavas, he will put an end to his life by fire, poison or water. Then Śakuni proposes that a game of dice should be arranged, and that Yudhiṣṭhira be invited to it; and Śakuni, who is a skilled player, is to win Yudhiṣṭhira's whole kingdom from him with ease. They repair forthwith to the aged king Dhṛtarāṣṭra, in order to obtain his consent to the plan. At first the king will have nothing to do with it, wishing at all events to consult his wise brother Vidura; but when Duryodhana points out to him that Vidura always takes the part of the Pāṇḍavas, the feeble old king allows them to talk him over, and orders the game of dice to be held. He sends Vidura in person to Yudhiṣṭhira to invite him to the game. Vidura warns the king and does not conceal from him his fear that great mischief may arise from this game of dice. Dhṛtarāṣṭra himself entertains this fear too, but believes that he must let Fate have its course. So Vidura goes to the court of King Yudhiṣṭhira to deliver the invitation to the game of dice. The latter, too, refers to the irresistible power of Fate, and accepts the invitation, though reluctantly. Accompanied by his brothers and Draupadī and the other women of the household, he sets out for Hastināpura. In Dhṛtarāṣṭra's palace the guests are greeted affably by their relatives and are received with great honours.

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The next morning Yudhiṣṭhira and his brothers repair to the gaming-hall, where the Kauravas are already assembled. Śakuni challenges Yudhiṣṭhira to play, the last-named stakes something—and loses. One after the other, he stakes all his treasures, all his wealth of gold and precious stones, his state chariot, his male and female slaves, elephants, chariots and steeds—and he loses every time. Then Vidura turns to Dhṛtarāṣṭra and advises him to sever from his son Duryodhana who bids fair to bring on the ruin of the entire family, and to forbid the continuation of the game. Duryodhana now begins to inveigh most bitterly against Vidura, calling him a traitor, a viper which the Kauravas have nourished in their bosom, for he never speaks but in the interests of their enemies. Vidura turns in vain to Dhṛtarāṣṭra. Śakuni scornfully asks Yudhiṣṭhira whether he has anything more to stake. Yudhiṣṭhira is now possessed by the uncontrollable passion for gambling, and stakes all his possessions, his oxen and all his cattle, his city, his land and the whole of his kingdom—and all is lost. He stakes even the princes, and then the brothers Nakula and Sahadeva, and loses them. Incited by Śakuni, he is even led away to stake Arjuna and Bhīma, and he loses even these. Finally he stakes *himself*, and Śakuni again wins. Śakuni remarks with scorn that Yudhiṣṭhira has not done wisely in staking himself, since he still possesses a treasure which can be gambled away, namely Draupadī, the daughter of the Pañcāla king. And to the horror of all the aged people present,¹ of Bhīṣma, Droṇa, Kṛpa and Vidura, Yudhiṣṭhira announces that he will stake beautiful Draupadī. The dice are cast amid universal excitement, and Śakuni gains yet another victory.

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¹ It is very noteworthy that these impartial and well-disposed men accept so calmly the fact that Yudhiṣṭhira has gambled away *his brothers and himself*, while it appears to them monstrous that he should stake their common *wife*.

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Laughing, Duryodhana asks Vidura to bring Draupadī along, so that she may sweep the rooms and take her place among the maidservants. Vidura admonishes him, and warns him that his behaviour will only serve to bring about the downfall of the Kauravas; he says that, as a matter of fact, Draupadī has not become a slave at all, for Yudhiṣṭhira only staked her when he was no longer master of himself. Then Duryodhana sends a sūta as a messenger to Draupadī, to fetch her. The latter sends the messenger back to ask whether Yudhiṣṭhira gambled *himself* or *her* away first. Duryodhana sends the reply that she was to come to the gaming-hall and ask this question herself. As she refuses, and sends the messenger back each time without fulfilling his task, Duryodhana calls on his brother Duḥśāsana to go and fetch her by force.

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Duśśāsana repairs to the women's apartments, and soon drags the struggling Draupadī into the assembly by the hair; she is unwell and therefore clad only in scanty garments. She laments bitterly that no one takes her part, not even Bhīṣma and Droṇa, and she casts a despairing glance at the Pāṇḍavas. Now the loss of their possessions and of their kingdom does not pain them so deeply as this glance of Draupadī's, filled with shame and anger. Then Bhīma can restrain himself no longer, he reproaches Yudhiṣṭhira violently for having staked Draupadī, and is about to lay hands on him.¹ But Arjuna admonishes him: Yudhiṣṭhira must always be recognised and respected as the eldest. Now Vikarṇa, one of Duryodhana's youngest brothers, calls on those assembled to reply to Draupadī's question whether she has been gambled away by right. As they are all silent, he himself answers the question *in the negative*. Karṇa, however, retorts that the Kauravas have won *everything*, and that therefore the wife of the Pāṇḍavas also belongs to them. He adds that the Pāṇḍavas, and Draupadī too, should be stripped of their very clothes, as the Kauravas have won their clothes from them. The Pāṇḍavas take off their upper garments, while Duśśāsana, at a sign from Karṇa, proceeds to tear Draupadī's garment from her. She, however, prays to Kṛṣṇa, the incarnation of the god Viṣṇu, and by his help she remains clothed, however many times Duśśāsana seizes her draperies.² But Bhīma now pronounces the terrible oath:

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¹ Bhīma says he will burn both of Yudhiṣṭhira's arms, and asks Sahadeva to bring fire for this purpose (II, 68, 6; 10). J. J. *Meyer* ("Das Weib im altindischen Epos," p. 226) translates differently, interpreting the passage as meaning that Bhīma wishes to burn his own hands, and Meyer calls this "a typically Indian method of revenge and branding," similar to the "prāyopaveśa" (threat of suicide by hunger, in order to force a right). Nīlakaṇṭha's commentary (te tava purā iti śeṣaḥ) would confirm this interpretation. Even if the usual translation be accepted, Bhīma's threat sounds very strange.

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² Not only the Southern Indian manuscripts, but also the play "Dūtavākya" ascribed to Bhāsa, make it seem probable that this miracle of the garments is a very late interpolation; s. *Winternitz* in Festschrift Kuhn, pp. 299 ff. *Oldenberg* ("Das Mahabharata," pp. 45 ff.) makes an attempt to distinguish generally between the earlier and later parts in the present narrative of the gambling scene.

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"Give heed to my oath, ye warriors of the whole world, an oath such as has never before been uttered by men, and such as will never again be uttered by a man. May I never attain to the resting-place of my ancestors if I do not fulfil the words which I have spoken—if I do not tear open the breast of this evil, foolish outcast of the Bhāratas in the fight, and drink his blood!"

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Horror seizes all the warriors and heroes at these fearful words. In vain does Vidura remind those present of their *duty* to decide the legal question whether Draupadī has been won by the Kauravas or not. In vain does Draupadī weep and lament, and implore her relatives to answer her question. Even the pious Bhīṣma, learned in the law, can say no more than that justice is a ticklish matter, and that might is right in this world. As Yudhiṣṭhira is a model of justice, he himself should decide. Duryodhana, too, scornfully asks Yudhiṣṭhira to give his opinion whether he considers Draupadī has been won or not. And as Yudhiṣṭhira sits there absent-minded, and makes no reply, Duryodhana goes so far as to offer the most unheard-of insult to the Pāṇḍavas: he bares his left thigh before Draupadī's very eyes. Then Bhīma utters the terrible words: "May Bhīma never be united to his fathers, if I do not crush this thigh of yours in the fight!"

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Whilst still further speeches are being exchanged, the loud cry of a jackal and other sounds of ill omen are heard in Dhṛtarāṣṭra's house. Terrified by these, the old king Dhṛtarāṣṭra at last feels himself called upon to intervene. He blames Duryodhana in violent words. Then he pacifies Draupadī, and tells her to wish for something. She wishes for the freedom of her husband Yudhiṣṭhira. He grants her a second wish, and she chooses the liberation of the four remaining Pāṇḍavas. However, when he asks her to wish a third time, she says that she has now nothing more to wish for, as the Pāṇḍavas themselves will win all things needful, as soon as they are set free. Karṇa now begins to mock, saying that Draupadī is the boat in which the Pāṇḍavas have saved themselves from danger. Bhīma is consumed by rage, and is in doubt whether he should not slay the Kauravas on the spot. But Arjuna calms him, and Yudhiṣṭhira forbids any fighting. King Dhṛtarāṣṭra, however, returns Yudhiṣṭhira his kingdom and exhorts him to let bygones be bygones. Thus they return to Indraprastha in a calmer frame of mind.

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*The second game of dice and the banishment of the Pāṇḍavas.*

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No sooner have the Pāṇḍavas departed, however, than Duryodhana, Duḥśāsana and Śakuni again besiege the old king, pointing out to him the danger which threatens from the Pāṇḍavas who have now been so grievously insulted, and persuade him to give his consent to a second game of dice This time the loser is to go into banishment into the forest for twelve years, sojourn somewhere among people in the thirteenth year incognito, and is only to be allowed to return in the fourteenth year. Should he be recognised in the thirteenth year, however, he would have to go into banishment for another twelve years. In vain does Gāndhārī, the king's consort, strive to persuade him to sever himself from his wicked son Duryodhana, in order that he may not be guilty of causing the downfall of all the Kauravas. But he is deluded, and gives his consent; and a messenger is sent out, who catches up with the Pāṇḍavas, who are still on their homeward journey. Bewildered by fate, Yudhīṣṭhira accepts the invitation to the second game of dice. They all return, the game begins afresh, and he again loses. Now they must all go into banishment for thirteen years.

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Clad in antelope-skins, the Pāṇḍavas prepare to go into the forest. Duryodhana and Duḥśāsana rejoice in their triumph, and joke about them, but Bhīma hurls terrible threats at them. As Duryodhana pierces their hearts with sharp words, he says, even so will he pierce Duryodhana's heart in the fight. And once again he swears to drink the blood of Duḥśāsana. Arjuna promises to slay Karṇa, Sahadeva, Śakuni and Nakula, the remaining sons of Dhṛtarāṣṭra. But Yudhiṣṭhira takes leave of Dhṛtarāṣṭra, Bhīṣma and the other Kauravas, and most affectionately of all, of wise, good Vidura. Kuntī, the mother of the Pāṇḍavas, stays behind in Vidura's house, but Draupadī follows her husbands into banishment, and her farewell from her mother-in-law is touching indeed. With tearful lamentations Kuntī sees her children go forth into banishment, but, with the exception of the gentle Yudhiṣṭhira, all of them swear to have their bloody revenge on the Kauravas in the fourteenth year. Omens of evil portent, and the prophetic words of the heavenly messenger Nārada announce to King Dhṛtarāṣṭra the downfall of his race, and he feels bitter remorse for having given his consent to the game of dice and the banishment.¹

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¹ Here ends the *Sabhāparvan*, the second book.

The twelve years' forest life of the Pāṇḍavas

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² This forms the contents of the extensive third book, called *Vanaparvan* or "forest section."

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Numerous citizens of Hastināpura accompany the Pāṇḍavas into the forest, and it cost Yudhiṣṭhira some trouble to persuade them to return home. Several Brahmins stayed with him for some considerable time. In order to be able to feed them, he practised asceticism, and prayed to the sun-god, whereupon he received from the latter a copper cooking-pot which filled itself at will. He fed the Brahmins with this, and then journeyed northward to the Kāmyaka forest. Bhīma soon slew the man-eating rākṣasa Kirmīra, a brother of Baka and a friend of Hiḍimba, who haunted this forest.

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