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A History of Indian Literature v2.c20.s3: The Non-Canonical Jaina Literature

A History of Indian Literature v2.c20.s3

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The Non-Canonical Jaina Literature

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As the Jaina Canon was written down at so late a period, it is not possible to fix a definite line of demarcation between the canonical and the non-canonical literature. At all events the non-canonical literature already begins before the completion of the Canon, and it has continued through all the centuries down to the present day.

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The language of the post-canonical Jaina works is partly Prākrit—the so-called Jaina-Māhārāṣṭrī—and partly Sanskrit. In general it may be said that the earlier works were in Prākrit, and that later, certainly not until the centuries of the Christian era, Sanskrit was also used. Side by side with Sanskrit, however, in which language some Jaina authors reached a great perfection, though others wrote it rather clumsily, Prākrit and the Apabhraṁśa dialects were still used, even in the later centuries, and lastly the modern Indian languages too: for the Jains, more than any other sect, have in their writings, and especially in their exceptionally comprehensive narrative literature, never addressed themselves exclusively to the learned classes, but made an appeal to other strata of the people also. As is still the case at the present day, it was among the merchant classes in particular that they found their most loyal lay adherents.

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It is extremely difficult to establish a chronology of the earlier non-canonical Jaina literature from the 1st to the 8th century A.D. It is true that we possess a large number of so-called Paṭṭāvalis, Therāvalis, genealogical lists of the teachers and heads of schools, which frequently contain very exact chronological data. On the other hand, these lists often contradict one another: sometimes there are external reasons why credence should not be given to them, and yet it is scarcely feasible to regard them as pure invention. A further difficulty is that frequently the same names occur several times, so that it would be necessary to devote a separate investigation to each single author and each individual work.

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It may be assumed as certain that, long before the final compilation of the Canon under Devarddhi, the Jaina monks began to write explanations of the sacred texts. The earliest commentaries, the Nijjuttis or Niryuktis, are in some instances very closely interwoven with the Sūtras, or they even supplanted the latter. The Piṇḍa-Nijjutti and the Ogha-Nijjutti appear in the Canon itself, and the Ogha-Nijjutti is even supposed to have been taken from one of the Pūrvas.¹

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¹ See above, pp. 462, 465, and *Charpentier* in ZDMG 70, 1916, 219 f.

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Bhadrabāhu, who is said to have died 170 years after the death of Mahāvīra, has already been introduced to us above, as the author of a Kalpa-Sūtra, and tradition is unanimous in naming him as the author of Nijjuttis on 10 works of the Canon.² The Digambaras tell us, however, that there were two Bhadrabāhus, the first of whom died 162 years after the Nirvāṇa of Mahāvīra (*i.e.*, 365 B.C.) and the second 515 years after the Nirvāṇa (*i.e.*, 12 B.C.).³

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² On Āyāraṃga, Sūyagaḍaṃga, Sūriyapannatti, Uttarajjhayaṇa, Āvassaya, Dasaveyāliya, Dasāsuyakkandha, Kalpa-Sūtra, Vavahāra and Ṛṣibhāṣita-Sūtra. Cf. *Bhandarkar*, Report, 1883-4, p. 131 f.; *Peterson*, Report IV, p. lxxxiv.

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³ *Cf. H. Jacobi* in the Introduction to the Bhadrakalpa-Sūtra, p. 10 ff.; *J. Klatt* in Ind. Ant. 11, 1882, p. 245; *Satis Chandra Vidyābhūṣaṇa*, History of Indian Logic, Calcutta 1921, p. 164 f. If a recent Śvetāmbara tradition makes him a brother of Varāhamihira, it refers to the author of a Bhādrabāhavī Saṃhitā, a work on astronomy, which is later than Varāhamihira. *Cf. Jacobi*, loc. cit., p. 13 f. It is yet an entirely different Bhadrabāhu who wrote the Bhadrabāhu-Saṃhitā, a work on the right of succession; text and Engl. translation by *J. L. Jaina*, Jaina Law, in the Library of Jaina Literature, Vol. IV, Arrah, 1916.

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Kundakunda,⁴ who, according to the Paṭṭāvalīs of the Digambaras, lived in the 1st century A.D., calls himself a pupil of Bhadrabāhu, perhaps referring thereby to Bhadrabahu II.¹ He wrote his learned works only in Prākrit. Umāsvāmin, who is called Umāsvāti by the Śvetāmbaras, and who is recognised by both sects as a great authority in matters pertaining to the faith, is according to the Digambaras, a pupil of Kundakunda. Vaṭṭakera and Kārttikeya Svāmin, too, probably belong to the first centuries of the Christian era. Siddhasena Divākara, who is by some also ascribed to the earlier centuries of the Christian era, and by others to a period as late as the 7th century A.D., is celebrated both as a logician and a lyrical poet.² Vimala Sūri, who, according to his own statements, composed his Rāma-epic Paümacariya in Prākrit 530 years after the Nirvāṇa,³ is certainly a very early Prākrit poet. During the first centuries, at all events prior to the 5th century A.D., Pālitta (Pādalipta)¹ wrote a religious novel in Prākrit. It is possible that the poet Mānatuṅga,² who, according to some of the lists of teachers, lived as early as at the beginning of the 3rd century A.D., also belongs to the early period of classical Sanskrit poetry. Devanandin or Jinendrabuddhi, who is usually called by his honorific name Pūjyapāda, and who is famous as a grammarian, poet and erudite writer, lived between the 5th and 7th centuries.³

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⁴ He belongs to the Draviḍa-Saṃgha, *i.e.*, the Jaina community of the South. He has also the epithets Vakragrīva, Elācārya, Gṛdhrapiccha, and his original name is said to have been Padmanandin. According to a Digambara-Paṭṭāvali, he is the fifth in the genealogical tree of teachers beginning with Bhadrabāhu. The school which he founded is first mentioned in an inscription of 797 A.D. *Cf.* A. *Guérinot*, Répertoire d'Épigraphie Jaina, Paris 1908, p. 42 ff. ; *Peterson*, Report II, 80 ff., 158 ff.; Report, IV, p. xix f. ; *Hiralal*, Catalogue, p. vi f. It is not so likely that he is also the author of the famous Tamil book of sayings Kurral, as is believed by *Chakravartinayanar* (SBJ, III, p. ix f.). He wrote three of his works for his royal pupil Śivakumāra Mahārāja. This prince is identified by *K. B. Pathak* (Ind. Ant. 14, 1885, p. 15) with the Kadamba king Śiva Mṛgeśa Mahārāja (5th century A.D.), by *Chakravartinayanar* (SBJ, III, p. xii ff.) with Śivaskandavarman of the Pallava dynasty.

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¹ *Cf.* *W. Denecke* in Festgabe Jacobi, p. 163 f.

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² According to a Śvetāmbara tradition he is said to have converted King Vikramāditya in the year 470 after Mahāvīra (57 B.C.) (*Klatt* in Ind. Ant. 11, 1882, p. 247), whereas the Digambaras state 714 to 798 after Mahāvīra (187-271 A.D.) as his time. Vṛddhavādi Sūri is named as his teacher. He is supposed to be a contemporary of Siṁhagiri (who is 15th in the Kharatara-Gaccha-Paṭṭāvali, in which Samantabhadra is the 19th) and of Pālitta. For the legends about Siddhasena and King Vikramāditya, s. *Weber*, Ind. Stud. 15, 278 ff. He is said to have received the name Kumudacandra at his consecration. See *Peterson*, Report IV, p. cxxxi f. *Jacobi* (Ind. Stud. 14, 376) thinks that this may be merely an invention on the part of the commentator, who was anxious to interpret the concluding verse of the Kalyāṇamandira-Stotra as alluding to the name of the author. *Jacobi* (Samarāicca Kahā, Ed., Introduction, p. iii) considers 670 A.D. as his probable date. The arguments adduced by *S. Ch. Vidyābhūṣaṇa*, History of Indian Logic, p. 173 f., for placing him in about 480-550 A.D. are not convincing. *L. Suali*, Introduzione allo studio della Filosofia Indiana, Pavia 1913, p. 38 f., agrees with Vidyābhūṣaṇa, who already previously (Mediaeval School of Indian Logic, p. 14 f., and Nyāyāvatāra, Introduction, p. iv) gave the date as 533 or as 550 A.D. See also *Hiralal*, Catalogue, p. xii ff.

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³ That is, according to the usual calculation, in the year 4 A.D. As in the work itself the terms dīnāra and lagnā occur, and there is mention of Yavanas and Śakas, *Jacobi* (Bhavisatta Kahā, p. 59,\* Upamitibhavaprapañcā-Kathā Ed., Preface, p. x) thinks that the work can have originated "in the 2nd or 3rd century A.D. at the earliest." In this case we should have to assume that, in Vimala's days, a later date was assumed as the date of Mahāvīra's death, than that now usually assumed, *i.e.*, 527 B.C. *Leumann* regards the date 4 A.D. to be incontestable, as he tells me in a letter. See above I, 513 f.

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¹ According to the Paṭṭāvalīs, Vṛddhavādin, Pādalipta (Pālitta) and Siddhasena Divākara were contemporaries. (*Klatt*, Ind. Ant. 11, 251.)

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² In the chronology of the heads of schools in the Kharataragaccha-Paṭṭāvalī, he appears as the 23rd, immediately before Devarddhi, as whose date 980 after Vīra (453 A.D.) is given, whilst Samantabhadra appears as the 19th (*Klatt*, Ind. Ant. 11, 247). In the Tapāgaccha-Paṭṭāvalī Samantabhadra is the 16th and Mānatuṅga the 20th in the list (loc. cit. 252).

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³ *Bhandarkar*, Early History of the Dekkan, second Ed., p. 59, places him about 678 A.D., B. *Lewis Rice* in JRAS 1890, 245 ff., about the middle of the 5th century A.D. A Digambara Paṭṭāvalī gives 251 A.D. as his date. See *Hoernle* in Ind. Ant. 20, 1891, 351; *Klatt*, Specimen of Jaina Onomasticon, p. 45 f., and *Jacobi* in ZDMG 60, 290. That he lived before Samantabhadra is shown by K. B. *Pathak* in Ann. Bh. Inst. 11, 1930, pp. 53 f., 153.

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The second half of the 7th and the first half of the 8th century A.D. was a period of lively philosophical disputes. Kumārila, the great Mīmāṃsā philosopher and representative of Brahmanical orthodoxy, attacked the Buddhist and Jinistic logicians, including among the last-named the prominent teachers Samantabhadra and Akalaṅka, whilst Prabhācandra and Vidyānanda defended their co-religionists against Kumārila.⁴

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⁴ Akalaṅka lived during the reign of the Rāṣṭrakūṭa-King Sāhasatuṅga Dantidurga, and Prabhācandra until the reign of Amoghavarṣa I. According to S. Ch. *Vidyābhūṣaṇa*, History of Indian Logic, p. 193 f., he lived in the 9th century A.D. See K. B. *Pathak* in JBRAS 18, 219 ff.; OC IX, London 1891, I, 186 ff., and Ann. Bh. Inst. 11, 1930, p. 149 ff. ; 12, 1931, p. 123 ff. There is an inscription, first edited by Lewis *Rice* in 1889, in Śravaṇa Belgola (Mysore) in which it is reported that an Ācārya by the name of Prabhācandra died the voluntary death of an ascetic on the mountain Kaṭavapra. The inscription is not dated, but on palaeographical grounds is said to be not later than 750 A.D., probably earlier. E. *Leumann* in WZKM 7, 1893, p. 382 ff., was the first to express the conjecture that this Prabhācandra and the Digambara author and logician are identical, and J. F. *Fleet* (Ep. Ind. 4, 1896-97, p. 22 ff.) agrees with him. A. *Venkatasubbiah* (JBRAS 3, 1928, 144 ff.), however, is right in saying that there is no proof of this identity. In Digambara Paṭṭāvalīs one Prabhācandra is mentioned with the date 396 A.D. and another with the date 1250 A.D.; see *Hoernle* in Ind. Ant. 20, 1891, pp. 351, 354. There are 4 or 5 different writers named Prabhācandra, s. *Hiralal*, Cat., p. xxviii.

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In the 8th century, probably between 705 and 775 A.D., there also lived one of the most distinguished and prolific writers of the Jainas, Haribhadra,¹ a pupil of Jinabhadra (or Jinabhaṭa) and Jinadatta,² from the Vidyādhara-kula. He was born at Citrakūṭa, the present-day Chitore, as the son of a Brahmin, and was instructed in all branches of Brahmanical learning. Proud of his enormous erudition, he declared that he would become the pupil of any man who could tell him a sentence the meaning of which he did not understand. This challenge was inscribed on a plate which he wore on his stomach, whilst another legend has it that he laid gold bands around his body to prevent his bursting owing to so much learning. One day he heard the Jaina nun Yākinī reciting a verse, the meaning of which he did not understand. He asked her to explain the meaning to him. She referred to a teacher Jinabhaṭa, who promised to instruct him, if he would enter the Jaina Order. So Haribhadra became a monk, and thenceforth called himself the "spiritual son" (dharmaputra) of the nun Yākinī. He soon became so well-versed in the sacred writings of the Jainas, that he received the title Sūri (honorific epithet of learned Jain monks), and his teacher appointed him as his successor. According to an unauthenticated tradition, he wrote no less than 1,444 works. Hitherto 88 of his works have indeed been found in manuscripts, and 20 of these are also printed. In all probability he soon wandered away from his birthplace Citrakūṭa, for his life as a monk was spent for the most part in Rājputāna and Gujarat. A Brahmin by birth, Haribhadra was thoroughly well versed in Brahmanism, but he also had a considerable knowledge of the Buddhist doctrines, which may have given rise to the various legends, according to which he secretly procured a knowledge of Buddhism through his pupils and his nephews Haṁsa and Paramahaṁsa, in order to be able to refute its doctrines thoroughly.¹ Haribhadra wrote both in Sanskrit and Prākrit. He was an eminent composer in verse and in prose, and also wrote systematic scientific treatises (Prakaraṇas) and comprehensive philosophical works. Probably, he was also the first to write commentaries to the Canon in Sanskrit. Among his commentaries, those to the two Mūla-Sūtras Āvassaya and Dasaveyāliya have come down to us. While utilising the ancient Prākrit commentaries, he retained the narratives (Kathānakas) in their original Prākrit form.

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¹ Thus according to the researches of Muni *Jinavijayaji* (The Date of Haribhadrasūri, in Proc. I. OC, Poona, Vol. I. 1920, p. cxxiv ff.), with whom *Jacobi* (Samarāicca Kahā Ed., pp. i-iv) agrees. *Peterson* (3 Reports, p. 3 f. and Appendix II, 284) quotes a Prākrit verse, out of the Gāthāsahasrī written in 1630, according to which the famous Haribhadra is said to have died in 535 of the Vikrama era, *i.e.*, in 478 A.D. Another tradition, which can be traced till the 13th century, gives 529 A.D. as Haribhadra's date (*Klatt*, Ind. Ant. 11, pp. 247, 253). However, as writers of the 6th and 7th centuries are mentioned in works attributed to Haribhadra, those dates cannot be correct. Perhaps Mahāvīra's Nirvāṇa was reckoned differently in those days. (See above p. 424, note 1, and *Jacobi*, Upamitibhavaprapañcā-Kathā Ed., Preface, p. viii ff.) S. Ch. *Vidyābhūṣaṇa* (*History* of Indian Logic, p. 208 ff.) has certainly assumed that the younger Haribhadra, who wrote in about 1120 A D., is the author of the works Ṣaḍdarśanasamuccaya, Daśavaikālika-niryukti-ṭīkā, Nyāyapraveśaka-Sūtra and Nyāyāvatāra-vṛtti, but this is in contradic tion to the entire tradition. Muni *Jinavijayaji* has established, however, that Uddyotana in his Prākrit poem Kuvalayamālā, completed in 779 A.D., calls Haribhadra his teacher. As he quotes authors who lived in the second half of the 7th century, he must have lived in the 8th century. Śāntarakṣita (8th century A.D.) quotes in Tattvasaṃgraha an Ācārya Sūri, whom *Benoytosh Bhattacharyya* (GOS, Vol. 30, p. lxxv) identifies with Haribhadra Sūri.

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² Haribhadra says of himself in the colophons at the end of some of his works, that he obeys the command of Jinabhaṭa, a teacher of the Śvetāmbaras, and that he is the pupil of Ācārya Jinadatta, the ornament of the Vidyādharakula (gaccha). See *Jacobi*, Samarāicca Kahā Ed., p. iv. Besides the famous Haribhadra there are at least 8 other Jaina writers of the same name, s. *Klatt*, Specimen of a Literary Bibliographical Jaina Onomasticon, pp. 5, 8 f.; Munī *Kalyāṇavijaya* in the Introduction to his edition of Haribhadra's Dharmasaṃgrahaṇī, Bombay, 1918 (JPU 23) and *Jacobi*, Sanatkumāracaritam, p. VII, Note 3.

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¹ On the numerous legends and anecdotes which are told regarding the life of Haribhadra, see *Klatt* in Ind. Ant. 11, p. 247; *Hertel*, Jinakirtis "Geschichte von Pāla und Gopāla," p. 141 ff.; *Glasenapp*, Der Jainismus, p. 107 f.; *Jacobi*, Samarāicca Kahā Ed., pp. iv-xviii.

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Śīlāṅka or Śīlācārya, who lived about a century later, and wrote commentaries on the first two Aṅgas in about 862 or 872 A.D., already translated all the Prākrit sources which he used, including the narratives, into Sanskrit. He also wrote a Mahāpuruṣa-Carita in the year 869 A.D.[^1)

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In the 9th century Jinasena, the friend of King Amoghavarṣa I (815-877 A.D.) wrote the Ādi-Purāṇa. At the beginning of the 10th century (906 A.D.) the poet Siddha, usually called Siddharṣi, wrote his famous allegorical romance in which the existence of the beings is set forth in symbolical terms. At the end of the 10th and the beginning of the 11th century, the Digambara Amitagati wrote two famous didactic poems and a number of other works. Round about the same time, the Digambara Nemicandra, the teacher of the minister Cāmuṇḍarāya, in Southern India, wrote the Gommaṭasāra and other erudite works on the Jaina religion. In the 11th century Śānti Sūri and Devendragaṇin wrote their exhaustive commentaries on the Uttarajjhayaṇa,[^2) and the famous Abhayadeva, pupil of Jineśvara, his commentaries on nine Aṅgas. His commentary on the 6th Aṅga was written in 1064 A.D.[^3) Maladhāri-Hemacandra Sūri, who wrote

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[^1): H. *Jacobi*, Sanatkumāracaritam, p. xiii. [^2): On this commentary, see *Charpentier*, Uttarādhyayana, Introduction, p. 53 ff. [^3): He is said to have died in 1075 or 1082 A.D. See *Klatt* in Ind. Ant. 11, 253. There are, however, no less than 6 Jaina authors by the name of Abhayadeva, s. *Peterson*, Report IV, p. iii ff.

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commentaries and didactic poems at the beginning of the 12th century, was a pupil of Abhayadeva.

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Somewhat later than the last-named, and far more celebrated, is the great Hemacandra,¹ also called Hemācārya, the pupil of Devacandra. He was one of the most versatile and prolific of writers, and worked in the most varied domains, both as a poet and a scholar. It is due to him that Gujarat became a main stronghold of the Śvetāmbara Jainas and has remained so for centuries, and that Jaina literature flourished so exceedingly there in the 12th and 13th centuries. He was not, however, only the author of Jinistic works, but, in addition, he provided his co-religionists with important text-books on temporal branches of learning (grammar, lexicography, poetics and metrics), so that he was called “the Omniscient of the Kali Age” (Kalikālasarvajña). He was born at Dhundhūka, a town in the neighbourhood of Ahmedabad (Gujarat) in 1089 A.D. as the son of a merchant. His parents were pious Jainas, and in his early childhood he was already destined for the life of a monk. As a Jaina teacher he spent the greater part of his life in the capital of Gujarat. His patron was at first the Caulukya king Jayasiṁha Siddharāja (1094-1143). This king favoured literature and science, and was a devout worshipper of Śiva, but he was so much devoted to philosophy that he called teachers of various sects to his court. Among these teachers was Hemacandra, who, owing to his great erudition, not only attracted the attention of the king, but attempted to win the king’s sympathy for the Jaina religion; with a view to achieving this end, he made it his business to emphasize more specially the points of agreement between the Jaina religion and authoritative Brahmanical works. Jayasiṁha’s successor was Kumārapāla, who was originally also a devotee of Śiva, but was converted to Jinism by Hemacandra. After his conversion, which is said to have taken place in 1159 A.D., he endeavoured to make Gujarat a model Jaina state. He personally renounced the sport of hunting, and prohibited in his entire realm the slaughter of animals, the eating of meat and the drinking of intoxicants, dice-playing, animal fights and betting. In addition he erected Jaina temples, and favoured the literary and scientific efforts of the Jainas. During the reign of these two kings Jayasiṁha and Kumārapāla, Hemcandra enjoyed a period of intense literary productivity. He died in the year 1172 A.D. at the age of 83 years.

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¹ See G. *Bühler*, Ueber das Leben des Jaina-Mönches Hemchandra, des Schülers des Devachandra aus der Vajraśākhā: Denkschriften der Kais, Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien 1889; also *Jacobi*, ERE VI, 591.

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There is scarcely any province of Indian literature in which the Jainas have not been able to hold their own. Above all, they have developed a voluminous narrative literature, they have written epics and novels, they have composed dramas and hymns; sometimes they have written in the simple language of the people, at other times they have competed, in highly elaborate poems, with the best masters of ornate court poetry, and they have also produced important works of scholarship.

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The Nijjuttis, which have already received mention, consist of very concise explanations in Āryā-verses and Jaina-Māhārāṣṭrī. They are probably memorial verses which served as an aid to the memory of the teachers in their oral interpretation of the sacred texts. At a later date, these Nijjuttis were extended to form exhaustive commentaries in Prākrit (Bhāṣyas and Cūrṇis). These in their turn formed the foundation for the Sanskrit commentaries (Ṭīkās, Vṛttis, Avacūrṇis), which were compiled between the 11th and 12th centuries A.D. These various strata of commentaries are often so much intermingled that it is difficult to distinguish them from one another.¹

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¹ See Leumann in ZDMG 46, 1892, 556 ff.

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The value of all these commentaries lies in their serving as a depositary of very many ancient, historical or semi-historical traditions on the one hand, and of a great mass of popular narrative themes on the other. Like the Buddhist monks, the Jaina monks, too, delighted at all times in adorning their sermons with the telling of stories, in converting worldly stories into legends of saints, in elucidating Jinistic doctrines by means of "examples," thus exploiting the inborn Indian love for fables in order to win over and retain as many adherents as possible for their religion. As we have seen, a part of these stories had already found a place in some texts of the Canon in the form of legends and ballads. The majority of them is to be found dispersed in great masses throughout the commentary literature which extends down the centuries. The narratives contained even in the later Sanskrit commentaries hark back to earlier sources: evidence for this is provided by the fact that the writers frequently do not tell them in the Sanskrit which would be their natural medium of narration, but in Prākrit, *i.e.*, the language in which the stories had come down to them from their predecessors.¹

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¹ An older form of Jaina-Māhārāṣṭrī appears in the Cūrṇis, Kathānakas and Āvaśyaka narratives. Moreover, the language of the verses differs from that of the prose. See H. *Jacobi*, Über das Prakrit in der Erzählungs-Litteratur der Jainas (RSO, Vol. II, Roma 1909, p. 231 ff.).

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As is the case with the Buddhist Jātakas, this narrative literature imbedded in the Commentaries, contains many popular themes, including some which occur also in other Indian and non-Indian literatures, and form part of the common treasury of universal literature. Much of this kind is already to be found in the narratives of the Nijjuttis.

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Thus in the Nijjutti to the Dasaveyāliya we find the story of the fatal purse:

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Two poor brothers are returning from a business journey with a purse full of money. On the way, each of them plans to kill the other, so as to be the sole possessor of the money. They are, however, ashamed of their intentions, and confess to each other, whereupon they throw the purse into the pond. It is swallowed by a fish, the fish is bought by the sister of the two brothers and the purse found by the maid-servant in the fish's stomach. A quarrel arises between the maid-servant and the woman, in the course of which the woman loses her life.¹

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¹ Leumann in ZDGM 46, p. 602.

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It is in the same Nijjutti that we find the following humorous dialogue, which also points to the fact that at the period of these old commentaries there must already have been monks of very dubious character.

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“O Monk, your cloak has so many folds.”
“Yes, it serves me as a net when I catch fish.” “You eat fish?”
“I eat them along with my brandy.” “You drink sweet brandy?”
“Oh yes, with the harlot.” “What, you go to harlots?”
“After I have crushed my enemies.” “You have enemies, then?”
“Only those whose houses I rob.” “You are a thief, then?”
“Only because of the game of dice.” “How, are you a gambler?”
“Am I not, after all, the son of a slave mother?”²

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² *Leumann*, loc. cit., p. 607. The story also occurs in the second narrative of Hemavijaya's Kathā-Ratnākara (German translation by Joh. *Hertel*, I, p. 10). A similar Sinhalese-Buddhist dialogue, in J. E. *Seneviratne*, The Life of Kalidas, Colombo 1901, p. 20 f.; in Vallabhadeva's Subhāṣitāvalī 2402; Kṣemendra's Lokaprakāśa (Weber, Ind. Stud. 18, 366 f.); *Böhtlingk*, Indische Sprüche, 2. Auflage, Nr. 4588. *Cf.* the story “Ein Wort gibt das andere” in J. P. *Hebel*, Schatzkästlein, Stuttgart, 1888, p. 168 f., and Th. *Zachariae*, Kleine Schriften, Bonn, Leipzig 1920, p. 195 ff.

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The accounts of the schisms, in Haribhadra's commentary on the Āvassaya and Śānti Sūri's commentary on the Uttarajjhayaṇa,³ are of great interest from the point of view of the history and development of the Indian sects. For instance, when we meet, in one of these accounts, with a wandering monk who has bound a copper wire around his garment, and runs about with the branch of a Jambu-tree, offering as a reason for his behaviour, that his garment might burst owing to the fulness of his erudition, and that he has no equal in the whole of the Jambu-continent (*i.e.*, in the whole of India), we are reminded of similar pictures from the lives of Indian sophists in the Upaniṣads and the Buddhist texts.

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³ E. *Leumann*, Ind. Stud. 17, 91 ff.; *Charpentier*, Uttarādhyayana-Sūtra, Ed., Introduction, p. 48 ff. *Leumann* edited one part of the Āvaśyaka narratives (mainly after Haribhadra's commentary on the Āvassaya) in AKM X, 2, Leipzig 1897.

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The commentaries on the Uttarajjhayaṇa are especially remarkable for their wealth of narrative themes.¹ The Nijjutti ascribed to Bhadrabāhu, consisting of nearly 600 verses, is the earliest commentary. The Cūrṇi by an unknown author, is later. The most important commentaries, however, are those by Śānti Sūri and Devendragaṇin. The earlier of the two is Śānti Sūri, who died in about 1040 A.D. In his commentary, entitled Siṣyahitā, the narratives are only retold in quite a short form: but this work forms the foundation for the Sukhabodhā, completed in the year 1073 A.D. by Devendragaṇin, who tells the stories in leisurely and ambling fashion. There is a Sanskrit recension of the tales from this commentary included in the commentary by Lakṣmīvallabha, the date of whom is not known.

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¹ The most interesting tales from these commentaries have been published by *H. Jacobi*, Ausgewählte Erzählungen in Māhārāṣṭrī, Leipzig 1886, and translated into English by *J. J. Meyer*, Hindu Tales, London. 1909. See also *Jacobi*, ZDMG 42, 493 ff., and Appendix to Hemacandra's Pariśiṣṭaparvan, pp. 1-28; *J. Charpentier*, ZDMG 64, 397 ff.; 66, 38 ff.; 67, 668 ff. The legend of the saint Pārśva, the 23rd Tīrthakara, has been edited and translated by *Charpentier*, from Devendragaṇin's Commentary, in ZDMG 69, 1915, 321-359.

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More than the Buddhists, the Jainas were at pains to appropriate to themselves all the favourite popular themes from Brahmanical and general Indian literature, so as to be in a position thus to offer their adherents within the fold of their own religious community, all that they could find elsewhere too. At times they established but a very slight connection between these ancient themes and the Jaina religion: in other cases, however, they completely changed and spoilt them, in order to give them a Jinistic appearance. At all events, many a gem of the narrative art of ancient India has come down to us by way of the Jaina commentary and narrative literature, which would otherwise have been consigned to oblivion, and in other cases the Jainas have preserved interesting versions of numerous legends and tales which are known from other sources also.

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For instance the Jainas incorporated the Kṛṣṇa-cult into their religion at a very early period, and consequently also interwove the Kṛṣṇa-legend with their own treasury of legends. As early as in the eighth Aṅga we met with a Jinistic form of the legend of the destruction of the city of Dvāravatī and the death of Kṛṣṇa. This is told in greater detail in Devendra's commentary on the Uttarajjhayaṇa.¹ It is in the same commentary that we find the ancient legend of the descent of Gaṅgā and the destruction of the sixty thousand sons of Sagara,² which is familiar to us from the epics. The great attractiveness of this epic legend for the Jaina narrator lay in the fact that the death of the sons was such a convenient peg on which to hang consolatory speeches, with pious thoughts as to the transitoriness of all earthly things. Moreover, their death is justified by Karman in the Jinistic sense. This is also used as an opportunity to introduce a Consolatory Story, which is but a variant of the Buddhist legend of Kisā-Gotamī and the mustard-seed.³ The Pacceka-Buddha stories, which Devendra tells as a connected whole in his commentary, show points of contact with Buddhist literature. In the story of the fourth of these royal saints, namely King Naggai, the story of Kaṇayamañjarī is inserted, who has been regarded as the prototype of Sheherezade.¹ One of the most charming romances which Devendra has preserved for posterity, is that of Mūladeva, the Jack of all trades, and the courtesan Devadattā.² Connected with Mūladeva, who, by the way, seems really to have lived and to have been the author of a Kāma-Śāstra,³ there is also the interesting robber tale of Maṇḍiya, who excites the pity of the people as a beggar by day, whilst he reduces the city to a state of terror as a murderous robber and burglar by night. Another robber tale is the prose narrative of Agaladatta, of which, however, a far more beautiful, and undoubtedly earlier poetic setting has come down to us in Devendra's commentary.⁴

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¹ See above, p. 470, note 1; *Jacobi* in OC VII, Wien, 1886, Berichte, p. 75 ff.; ZDMG 42, 1888, 493 ff. and E. Hardy, ZDMG 53, 1899, 41 ff.

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² *R. Fick*, Eine jainistische Bearbeitung der Sagara-Sage. Diss. Kiel 1888. *A. Holtzmann*, Indische Sagen (Nr. VI: "Dass Meer") has treated the legend according to the Mahābhārata (III, 100-109). On the same legend in the Rāmāyaṇa, see above I, p. 480.

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³ See above, p. 193 f.

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¹ See P. E. Pavolini in GSAI 12, 159 ff. *Charpentier*, Paccekabuddha-Geschichten, p. 146 ff., and J. J. *Meyer*, Two Twice-Told Tales, Chicago (Decennial Publications), 1903. The text according to Bhāvavijaya's Commentary on the Uttarajjhayaṇa is given by *Charpentier* (JA 1911, s. 10, t. XVIII, 201-255). The story of Kaṇayamañjarī is also translated into German by *Hertel*, Indische Märchen, Jena 1919, p. 271 ff.

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² Translated by *Charpentier*, Paccekabuddhageschichten, p. 62 ff.

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³ See *Charpentier*, loc. cit., p. 57 ff.; P. E. *Pavolini*, GSAI 9, 175 ff. and M. *Bloomfield*, The Character and Adventures of Mūladeva: Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 52, 1913, 616-650.

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⁴ Transl. into German verse by J. J. *Meyer*, Kāvyasaṃgraha, p. 72 ff. Italian transl. by A. *Ballini*, Agaḍadatta, Firenze 1903.

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Many interesting tales are also to be found in Haribhadra's commentaries. In the Āvaśyaka narratives, for instance, we meet with the pretty legend of Vāsudeva, who sees only the good in all things:

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A deity transforms himself into the carcass of a dog, with beautiful teeth, lying by the roadside. All the passers-by draw back, disgusted at the stench of the carcass. Then Vāsudeva comes along, gazes calmly at the carcass, and exclaims: "How gloriously this dog's teeth gleam!"⁵

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⁵ J. J. *Meyer*, Hindu Tales, p. 83, note 1. According to K. *Seidenstücker* ("Der Buddhist," 2, 1910, 456 f., quoted by *Günter*, Buddha, p. 86 f.) the legend of the dog's carcass is Buddhist, as it is told in the Commentary on the Udāna-Varga. The same legend, in which Jesus plays the part of Vāsudeva, has been retold by *Goethe* (in the "Noten und Abhandlungen zum besseren Verständnis des westöstlichen Diwans") after the Persian poet *Nisami*. The story of Satānīka and Pradyota from Haribhadra's Commentary on the Āvaśyaka*, is given by *Hertel*, Jinakīrtis "Geschichte von Pāla und Gopāla," p. 98 ff. The text of the stories of the former existences of Jina Ṛṣabha after Haribhadra's Commentary on the Āvaśyaka-Niryukti (AUS, Bombay 1916) reprinted in *Jaina Jātakas*, ed. by *Banarsi das Jain*, Lahore 1925, p. xix ff.

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The Jainas did not rest content with adopting popular epic themes such as the Kṛṣṇa-legend, the legend of Draupadī, and others, into their sacred writings and the commentaries on them, but they also created poems of their own, which were to serve their adherents as a complete substitute for the great epics Rāmāyaṇa and Mahābhārata. The earliest poem of this kind is the Prākrit epic Paümariya (Padma-Carita)¹ by the poet Vimala Sūri, which was written, according to the data given by the poet himself (CXVIII, 103), 530 years after the demise of Mahāvīra. It is written in pure Jaina-Māhārāṣṭrī and in the Āryā metre, which is the real metre of Prākrit poetry. The "Life of Padma"—Padma is the name of Rāma in the poem, though the name Rāma also occurs frequently enough—is told in 118 cantos,² which are only in partial agreement with the Rāmāyaṇa. It is no part of the author's intention to follow Vālmīki, whom indeed he puts down as a liar, but he wants to tell the story of Rāma in such a way as to fit in with the "history of the world" according to Jinistic tradition, and as it was communicated by Goyama (Gautama), the principal pupil of Mahāvīra, to King Seṇiya (Bimbisāra) in accordance with Mahāvīra's own instructions. As the author says (CXVIII, 118), there is much that he already found in the Pūrvas.

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¹ Edited by *H. Jacobi*, Bavnagar 1914. The fact that I am in a position to give more detailed information regarding this work is due to the courtesy of my friend Prof. *Leumann*, who kindly placed the manuscript of his abridged translation of Cantos I-XXXI at my disposal, and also gave me valuable information by letter.

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² In the colophons of I-XXXV they are called uddesa (uddeśa), and after that, pavvaṁ (parvan).

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Canto I contains a table of contents. In the Introduction (Canto II) the following is related:

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It was in the days when King Seṇiya, *i.e.*, Śreṇika Bimbisāra, reigned in the Magadha city of Rājapura. Now in the city of Kuṇḍagrāma the Jina Mahāvīra was born as the son of Prince Siddhārtha and his consort Triśalā; at the age of 30 years he left his home, and attained to perfect knowledge. Once Mahāvīra preached a sermon upon souls and transmigration, on the Vipula hill in the presence of gods, men and animals. Among those present was king Seṇiya. When the latter had returned home, he dreamed about the Jina, and the next morning he made the following reflection:

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"How is it possible that the demon heroes in all their mighty strength were defeated by the monkeys? And the demons with Rāvaṇa at their head, who, according to the Jaina faith, were certainly of noble descent, are said to have eaten meat! Then again it is said that, in spite of all the disturbances, Rāvaṇa's brother Kumbhakarṇa slept for half a year, and then after his awakening, devoured elephants, etc., whereupon he again slumbered for half a year. Then again Indra, though he rules over gods and men, is said to have been taken captive to Laṅkā by Rāvaṇa! At that rate we might as well affirm that the lion is overcome by the gazelle, the elephant by the dog. These Rāmāyaṇa stories are most certainly lies."¹

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¹ After *Leumann's* rendering of II, 99-119. In the following extracts, too, for the portions given in quotation marks Professor *Leumann's* German translation has been freely used.

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In order to obtain enlightenment on these matters, the king with his retinue repairs to Goyama, and requests him to instruct him correctly regarding the life of Padma, as it seemed to him that the absurdities which are related regarding Rāma, Rāvaṇa and others, were not worthy of belief. Goyama declares his willingness to impart to the king that which Mahāvīra himself proclaimed, for "that which bad poets relate about Rāvaṇa, is indeed lies, I shall instruct you first as to place and time, and then as to the lives of the great men" (III, 14-17).

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The narrative begins (III, 18) as in a Purāṇa,² with a description of the universe and the history of Ṛṣabha, the first Jina, who lived in the Kṛta age, when there were only three castes, Kṣatriyas, Vaiśyas and Śūdras. The origin of the Vidyādharas, "holders of spells," a kind of demigods, is related (III, 144 ff.; *cf.* V, 13 ff.), also the origin of the Brahmins (IV, 64 ff.), of the Ikṣvāku dynasty and the dynasty of the moon (V, 1 ff.). Then comes the history of the second Jina with all manner of preliminary stories (V, 48 ff.).

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² The work calls itself a "Purāṇa" in the Introduction (I, 32) and at the end (CXVIII, 111).

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The story of the "race of monkeys" is told in Canto VI. On the monkey island there is the city of Kiṣkindhāpura. The "monkeys" are in reality a race of Vidyādharas, which is so-called, because it has monkeys by way of a badge on the arches of gates, banners, and the like. Canto VII treats of Indra, of the guardians of the universe Soma, Varuṇa, Kubera and Yama, the Asuras, Yakṣas etc., Vaiśramaṇa (who is distinct from Kubera) and the birth of Rāvaṇa, his sister Candramukhā and his brothers Bhānukarṇa and Vibhīṣaṇa. Rāvaṇa and his brothers acquire enormous magic powers by virtue of asceticism. The Rākṣasas, whose prince Rāvaṇa is, are not man-eating demons, however, but adherents of the race of the Vidyādharas. Rāvaṇa's mother hangs around his neck a wondrous string of pearls, in which his face is reflected nine times, hence his epithet of Daśamukha, "the man with ten faces" (VII, 95 f.).¹ The succeeding cantos tell of all manner of heroic deeds of Rāvaṇa. This Rāvaṇa is a great devotee of the Jinas; he restores ruined Jina shrines, and establishes the Jina faith (XI, 1 ff.).

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¹ This is obviously a realistic explanation of the epithet of Rāvaṇa, who in Rāmāyaṇa, III, 9 f., is a ten-headed monster, and is therefore called Daśagrīva or Daśānana. See Chintaharan *Chakravarti* in Ind. Hist. Qu. 1, 1925, 779 ff. G. *Ramadas* (Ind. Hist. Qu. 5, 1929, 281 ff.) has shown that in many passages in the Rāmāyaṇa Rāvaṇa has only one head and one face. The interpretation of the "monkeys" as Vidyādharas with monkeys on their banner, is also realistic.

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In Canto XI Goyama replies to the king's question as to how the sacrifice of animals originated. A Brahmin had a son Parvata and a pupil Nārada. Owing to blameworthy ascetic practices, Parvata was born again as a Rākṣasa, and in the guise of a Brahmin he introduced animal sacrifices. Nārada, however, who is a pious Jaina, declares that these sacrificial acts should be interpreted in the spiritual sense: "The sacrificial animals which are to be killed, are the passions, the sacrificial fee which is to be paid, is truth, forbearance and non-violence, the blessing (to be expected) is (not heaven, but) Nirvāṇa; those, however, who really slaughter sacrificial animals, go to hell like hunters." (XI, 75-81).

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Cantos XII and XIII tell of a fight between Rāvaṇa and the god Indra. Indra is defeated and is brought in triumph to Laṅkā, but is then released. The reason for his humiliation is that in a previous incarnation he had molested a monk. Indra places his son on the throne, becomes a monk, and attains to bliss. Rāvaṇa visits shrines on the Meru hill, where the gods are just paying homage to Anantavīrya, who has attained to perfect knowledge, and he hears the sermon of the latter upon Karman, generosity, the duties of monks and the duties of laymen (XIV). This sermon is also responsible for the conversion of Hanumant, whose descent and whose fights as the ally of Rāvaṇa, are related in Cantos XV and XIX. Through Rāvaṇa Hanumant receives a thousand wives. Canto XX treats of the Jinas, the rulers of the world, the Baladevas and the Vasudevas. It is not until Canto XXI that King Janaka is mentioned, and the story of Daśaratha and the actual Rāma epic begins: it is only in its main features that this story agrees with Vālmīki's Rāmāyaṇa: as regards the details there are many divergences.

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Daśaratha is presented by each of his wives Aparājitā and Sumitrā with a son, whose birth has been announced by three lucky dreams. The first is named Padma,¹ and the second Lakṣmaṇa: his sons Bharata and Śatrughna are born to him by Kaikeyī (XXV, 1-13).

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¹ It is noteworthy that it is only Rāma who has received another name, whilst the other names remain unchanged.

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Whereas the heroes of the Rāmāyaṇa move in an entirely Brahmanical atmosphere, in the Paüma-Cariya the religion of the Jina is everywhere very much to the fore. The kings are generally pious laymen, who retire from the world in their old age, and become Jaina monks. As in all narrative poems of the Jainas, the preliminary stories, *i. e.*, the stories of the previous existences of the heroes, are told with a great wealth of detail. Daśaratha takes up the reins of government, because his elder brother Anantaratha has become a monk (XXII, 100-105). A festival in the Jaina temple is described (XXIX, 1-18) at which King Daśaratha with his sons performs the ablution of the Jina images, and after an eight days' fast worships the Jinas. After the ablution he sends the water to his wives, and the young women, the daughters-in-law, pour it over the heads of their mothers-in-law. Now the principal wife did not receive the water which was intended for her, and feels herself slighted, so that she wishes to hang herself. The king, however, surprises her. While she is explaining things to him, the chamberlain comes with the water, and pours it over her head, whereupon she calms down. But the king reproaches the chamberlain with his thoughtlessness, whereupon the latter excuses himself on the ground of old age :

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"The body goes slowly like an old cart,
The eyes are short-sighted like bad friends,
The ears are deaf like bad sons,
The teeth have fallen out like spokes out of the wheel,
The hands find it difficult to grasp, like elephants taking a bite,
The legs are unreliable like bad women ;
Only the crutch is like the beloved of the heart."

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These words are a warning for the king, intimating that he, too, is ripe to say farewell to worldly things.

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There are, however, also many divergences in the epic, which have no connection with the Jaina faith. Sītā does not come forth out of the earth, as in the Rāmāyaṇa, but is born in a natural way by Videhā, the wife of King Janaka. Sītā is betrothed by Janaka to Padma (Rāma) because the latter has aided him in the fight against the Mlecchas of Ardhabarbara (the land of the semi-barbarians) and has distinguished himself. The story of the bending of the bow is told differently. The bow is brought by the Vidyādharas, who insist upon Sītā's being given in marriage to the Vidyādhara prince Candragati ; but at the self-choice of a husband arranged by Janaka, Rāma is the only man who succeeds in bending the bow.

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Daśaratha wishes to become a monk and to entrust Padma-Rāma with the responsibility of governing. Bharata, too, desires to withdraw from the world, but is persuaded by Kaikeyī and Padma to take over the reins of government. He makes a vow, however, in the presence of the Jaina monk Dyuti, to renounce the world as soon as Padma returns home, and he governs as a pious Jaina layman, without giving himself up to pleasure. The main story—the stealing of Sītā, the sending of Hanumant, the fights with Rāvaṇa and his defeat, the bringing home of Sītā, the discontent of the people, the banishment of Sītā, and the lamentations of Padma, the birth of Kuśa and Lava—is ever and again interrupted by incidental stories (upākhyāna). Finally Padma attains to perfect knowledge, and enters Nirvāṇa.

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Vimala's work probably served as a model for all the later adaptations of the Rāma legend among the Jainas. In the year 678 A.D. Raviṣeṇa wrote his Padma-Purāṇa,¹ which is merely a slightly extended recension of the Paüma-Cariya in Sanskrit, agreeing with it in all essential points. The Sanskrit epic, too, begins with a description of the world, especially the world of the Vidyādharas, and a glorification of the first Tīrthakara Ṛṣabha. Here, too, the "monkeys" are Vidyādharas, who have the picture of a monkey emblazoned on their banner.² As in the Paüma-Cariya, Parvan XX treats of the Tīrthakaras, and the actual story does not begin until Parvan XXI, with Daśaratha. Here, too, Padma is the name given to Rāma, and Kuśa and Lava are called Lavaṇa and Aṅkuśa etc.³ It goes without saying that, in a Jaina poem sermons are also inserted, *e. g.*, XXVI, 51 ff., on the dreadful consequences of killing and of the eating of flesh, with a description of hells appended.

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¹ Edited by Pandit Darbārī Lāla Nyāyatīrtha Sāhityaratna in MDJG Nos. 29-31, 1928. See Bhandarkar, Report 1833-84, pp. 117 f., 417 ff.. and Hiralal, Catalogue, p. xxi. Chintaharan Chakravarti has given a synopsis of the contents in the Bengali language: on this see Batakrishna *Ghosh* in Ind. Hist. Qu. 5, 1929, 157 ff.

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² VI, 1. 215.

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³ 123 Parvans in the edition of the Padma-Purāṇa correspond to the 118 sections of the Paüma-Cariya. How exactly Raviṣeṇa follows Vimala is shown, for instance, in Padma-Purāṇa I, 43 f., where the 7 objects of the "Purāṇa" are enumerated in almost literal agreement with Paüma-Cariya I, 32 f. It is very desirable, however, that a careful comparison of all the Jinistic adaptations of the Rāma legend be made.

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Later adaptations of the Rāma legend are to be found in Parvan 68 of the Uttara-Purāṇa and in Hemacandra's Triṣaṣṭiśalākā-Puruṣa-Caritra, Parvan 7 of which is also called "Jaina-Rāmāyaṇa."⁴ Hemacandra, too, begins with the stories of the Rākṣasas and monkeys, and depicts Rāvaṇa as a great and mighty ascetic. It is not until Sarga IV that the story of Rāma, Lakṣmaṇa and Sītā begins, and this ends in the last Sarga (X) with Rāma's entrance into Nirvāṇa. In the year 1596 A.D. Devavijayagaṇin, a pupil of Rājavijaya Sūri, wrote a Rāma-Caritra in prose. The author himself says that he is following Hemacandra's "Rāmāyaṇa." [^1) ]

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⁴ It has been printed in India as "Hemacandra's Rāmacaritra" or "Jaina-Rāmāyaṇa," thus in Poona 1890. On this, see D. Ch. *Sen*, The Bengali Ramayanas, Calcutta 1920, p. 26 ff., and above, I, p. 514, Note 1. For the-various versions of the Rāma legend in which Sītā is the daughter of Rāvaṇa, see also W. *Stutterrheim*, Rāma-Legenden und Rāma-Reliefs in Indonesien, München 1925, p. 92 f.

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The Mahābhārata also has repeatedly been adapted by the Jainas. The earliest work of this nature which has come down to us, is the Harivaṁśa-Purāṇa [^2) ] in 66 Sargas by Jinasena, who himself mentions in the concluding verses, that he completed his work in the year 705 of the Śaka era, *i.e.*, 783 A.D. In this Purāṇa not only are the legends of Kṛṣṇa and Balarāma told in a Jinisite setting, but Gautama, the pupil of Mahāvīra, is made the narrator of the story, and in many places sermons on the Jaina doctrine are inserted. The legend of Ṛṣabha, the first Jina, is told by way of introduction, and, connected with the story of Kṛṣṇa, we have the legend of Ariṣṭanemi or Nemi, Kṛṣṇa's cousin. Nemi is the 22nd Jina, and wanders around the world preaching. The story of the Kauravas and Pāṇḍavas and the descendants of Kṛṣṇa and Balarāma is also told. The Kauravas and Karṇa are converted to the Jaina religion. Finally the Pāṇḍavas also become ascetics, and like Nemi, attain to Nirvāṇa.

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[^1) ]: See *Bhandarkar*, Report 1882-83, pp. 94, 229. Rajendralala *Mitra*, Notices of Sanskrit MSS., VI, 1882, p. 70 ff. tells of a Puṇyacandrodaya-Purāṇa by Kṛṣṇadāsa, which similarly treats the subject-matter of the Rāmāyaṇa. A Jaina-Rāmāyaṇa in the Kanarese language is said to have been written in the 12th century, see *Guérinot*, p. 270. [^2) ]: Edited by Paṇḍit Darbārī Lāla Nyāyatīrtha Sāhityaratna in MDJG, 32 and 33. The complete title is Bṛhad-Harivaṁśa-Purāṇa or Ariṣṭanemipurāṇasaṃgraha-Harivaṁśa. An analysis of the work is given by Rajendralala *Mitra*, Notices of Sanskrit MSS., Vol. VI, 1882, pp. 74-97. See *Peterson*, Report IV, 167 ff.; *Leumann* in WZKM 11, 1897, p. 307; *Hiralal*, Catalogue, pp. xxii, 688, 715. On the dates given in the Praśasti, see *Peterson*, Report IV, p. 176; *Bhandarkar*, Early History of the Dekkan, 2nd ed., p 65; *Hoernle* in JRAS 1904, p. 644; K. B. *Pathak* in Ind. Ant. 15, 141 ff.; *Fleet* in Ep. Ind., VI, 195 ff.

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Another Harivaṃśa in 39 Sargas was written by Sakalakīrti and his pupil Jinadāsa in the 15th century.[^1) Among his predecessors Jinadāsa mentions Raviṣeṇa and Jinasena Ācārya, and he honours Bhadrabāhu, Kundakunda along with other Munis and his teacher Sakalakīrti, who is praised in the concluding verses as the "ornament of the Kundakunda race."

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In about 1200 A.D. the Maladhārin Devaprabha Sūri wrote a Pāṇḍava-Carita[^2) in 18 Sargas, in which the contents of the 18 Parvans of the Mahābhārata are given in a concise form, though remodelled in many of its details. The lengthy Sarga 6 contains the story of the game of dice, and the Nala episode—it is here called "story of Nala and Kūbara," the latter being the name of Nala's brother—is related by Vidura as a warning example. Sarga 16 tells the legend of the Jina Ariṣṭanemi in connection with the Pāṇḍava legend, and Sarga 18 relates how Baladeva reaches heaven and Ariṣṭanemi and the Pāṇḍavas enter Nirvāṇa. A Pāṇḍava-Purāṇa,[^3) which is also known as "Jaina-Mahābhārata," was written by Śubhacandra in 1551 A.D. In the opening verses the author

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