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Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan (1200–1550 A.D.) c7.s3.t2: II. Indoor Amusements

Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan (1200–1550 A.D.) c7.s3.t2

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II. Indoor Amusements

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*Jashn*, or social parties.—The popular term for social parties and entertainments was *Jashn*. When they spoke of organizing a *Jashn*, it usually brought to the mind of the hearer

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were somewhat negligent in their duties, the prince put them in halters like common hounds and ordered them to be paraded round the camp in this condition. When the Emperor Humayun came to know of this, he was exceedingly pleased at this exhibition of tact and authority on the part of the Prince. *Vide* A.N., I, 318.

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such items of entertainments as vocal and instrumental music, dainty wines, dried fruit and indoor games such as chess, *chaupar*, etc. It was usual to decorate the rooms where the guests assembled with rich carpets. Aloe-wood and incense were constantly burning there. Rose-water was frequently sprinkled over the party for its refreshing and cooling effect. Fruits were neatly served in silver and golden fruit-trays. But the most entertaining item was the wine which was served by very handsome cup-bearers together with some spices and seasoned dishes (like *kababs*) for relish. So that, as a result, ‘the covers of the goblets of wine’ (to borrow the figurative language of Amir Khusrau) ‘looked holier than a prayer carpet’.¹

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¹ Compare the descriptions of parties and items of entertainment I.K., II, 241-2, 271; Q.S., 129-30. The royal parties usually described as Majlis-i-Jashn, Jashn Darbars have been referred to earlier.

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The serious business commenced after sunset when the musicians and dancers began their performance, and the wine cups went round. When the performers had stirred the emotions of the audience to fever heat, gold and silver were frequently showered on them at intervals. In the small hours of the morning the whole scene began to fade away before the weary eyes, and people dropped into sleep through sheer exhaustion.² Entertainments on these broad lines were a regular feature of official celebrations. Certain festival days were fixed for public *Jashns*. When State envoys or any distinguished guest arrived, similar celebrations were held. The Mughal Emperor Akbar added to the number of existing official celebrations a dozen more from the Persian Calendar.³

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² Compare B.N., 330b.

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³ Compare A.A., 278, for the days of official celebrations under Sultan Firuz Shah Tughluq. Jashn parties were fixed for the two *Ids*, the *Nau-roz*, the entertainment of distinguished State guests, and in connection with the reception of envoys and other State functions. Compare A.A., I, 200, for official *Jashns* under Akbar.

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We have a connected record of the numerous banquets and festivities arising out of these royal *Jashns*. There is an almost tiresome repetition of the familiar features, namely ‘the fairy-faced dancers’, the ‘musk-smelling wines’, the drinking cups made of marble, the flower-carpets and other rich decorations, and the abundance of everything. Sometimes royal poets add to the liveliness of the occasion by their laudatory verses :

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at others, the courtiers enhance the gaiety and cheerfulness by their wit and humour.¹ In some respects these pleasure parties were very different from the official public *darbar* we have described elsewhere. In contrast to the dignity and the solemn appearance of a monarch in *darbar*, he was anything but conventional and ceremonial in these private parties. If there were a few chosen people in the party, he ‘left off the vanity that appertains to kingship’. The courtiers and guests were permitted to take off their heavy overcoats and to be generally at their ease. There was no particular reserve in conversation and matters of high policy of the State as well as smaller affairs were discussed with perfect geniality and ample freedom.²

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¹ Compare an account of Jashns in various chronicles. Hasan Nizami describes the parties of Qutb-ud-din Aibak and Iltutmish. In one place the author, by no means a man of secular outlook becomes so enthusiastic in describing wives ‘the source of happiness and the treasure of gaiety’ that he parts with his orthodox professions for the moment and frankly avows that drinking is quite legitimate and permissible (*halal*) for every sensible man and is prohibited only in the case of fools who are obsessed with the *Shari‘at*. Iltutmish used to go out for the chase and polo after these Jashn parties. *Vide* T.M. (II), 63-5. Compare the account of Barani for the *Jashns* of the austere Sultan Balban. Like Sultan Sanjar and Khvarazm Shah, the parties of Balban were organized on a gigantic scale. Flower carpets and curtains of brocade were used to decorate the halls; the service was gold and silver and there was abundance of all kinds of fruits, sweets, drinks, and betel-leaves. The guests attended in gorgeous costumes. The court poets recited their poems. *Vide* B., 32. Mubarak Shah Khalji was a gay monarch at his best. To celebrate the birth of his eldest son, he organized a *Jashn*, to some decorations of which we have already referred. Arched pavilions were constructed in the city and decorated with velvet and brocade curtains, after being lined with silks. The royal band played in the small cabinet at the top of this arch. All round the place, Persian and Indian musicians and dancers performed. The Sultan also held a *darbar* on the occasion and distributed lavish gifts in honour of the event. *Vide* K.K., 768-72.

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² Compare B. (MS.) 107, for a description of the parties of Jalal-ud-din Khalji; also Vambery, 55, for the conversation of the Turkish admiral Sidi Ali Reis with Humayun.

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On the return of Humayun from the Bihar campaign, his mother organized a grand banquet in his honour. The soldiers and the market people were specially commanded to decorate their lodgings and shops, which gave the thoroughfares of the city a beautiful appearance. A special throne was constructed in the banquet hall, to receive the Emperor. It was furnished with cushions and pillows of brocade. The State canopy used on this occasion was lined with English brocade and Portuguese velvet and was supported on gilded poles. Other articles of furniture, namely, candle-stands, ewers, wash-basins, goblets, rose-water sprinklers, etc. were all worked in gold and enamel. 7,000 dresses of honour and 12 rows of mules and pack camels, 100 pack horses, and 70 fine stallions were distributed in honour of the occasion. *Vide* G., 28-9. Similar entertainments under Akbar sometimes lasted for eighteen days when thousands of male and female singers and dancers were engaged to perform. *Vide* A.A., II, 309.

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Similar parties or Jashns on a very large scale were held on certain official occasions by the Sultans. We have mentioned the festivities and lavish gifts in connection with royal coronations. Big parties of an informal character followed the official celebrations and a great many officials and dignitaries were invited. Similarly other occasions served for inviting large numbers of officials and even common people to share in the happiness of the monarch.

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We shall describe in this connection certain new additions that were made by Mughal emperors to the existing features of a royal Jashn. We have mentioned earlier that Humayun introduced the system of river picnics on the Jumna and built for that purpose a double-storeyed building of wood on four giant boats containing all sorts of provisions for a pleasure party. The Emperor used to go out with chosen favourite nobles and ladies on the Jumna to enjoy himself with music and dancing. The ‘Mystery House’ to which a reference has already been made was sometimes converted to serve for a social party. In such a case, the water of the octagonal tank was emptied and the floor was spread with rich Persian carpets. An elevated dais was raised for the monarch and the visitors, and musicians made themselves comfortable on the floor. The whole building was tastefully decorated with brocade and embroidered cloth. The two side rooms on the ground floor were furnished with the necessary number of bedsteads, betel-leaf boxes, goblets, drinking vessels, and other furniture for lodging the monarch. The top floor was decorated with weapons and armour, prayer-carpets, books and ink-stands and specimens of calligraphy and paintings, to serve probably as the retiring room for the royal party. Fruits, drinks, and all necessities, were provided in the building. Sometimes, the water reservoir was used for bathing and people entered it, after taking preventives for cold, to stay and enjoy themselves all day long.¹

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¹ Compare K, 135-7, for details.

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Humayun similarly instituted the system of what came to be known as Mina Bazars under his son and successor. These were not separate and elaborate bazaars; only six stalls were constructed in the double-storeyed building on the boats to which we referred above. A miniature orchard was laid out on the boat and pots of flowers were provided, to give the whole place a most pleasant appearance. The stalls were supervised by ladies of rank and position who were chosen to act as saleswomen, while the Emperor went about bargaining and buying.¹ Under Akbar this system of bazars was greatly elaborated. Instead of modest stalls there was now a bazar, where the ladies and the Emperor in turn acted as customers and salesmen. This was a regular market and all sorts of merchandise was sold. In fact, a regular treasurer and auditor were appointed to look after this section of the royal activity. We know very little about these intriguing affairs beyond what Abu'l Fazl chooses to tell us. According to him the purchases of the Emperor were nothing but ‘an excuse for acquainting himself with information of all kind’ through his fair dealers. There was a great degree of freedom and accessibility in these Mina Bazars. For instance, when the Emperor acted as salesman and dealer, the ladies and other persons approached his stall without any interference or interruption on the part of the royal guards and ushers. So that apart from bargaining over an article, people used the opportunity to tell him all their grievances and sorrows.²

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¹ Compare the account of Gulbadan G. 31 for details.

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² Compare A.A., I, 200-1.

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*Indoor Games.*—For lighter amusement, a variety of indoor games was played, both with and without stakes. Chess, *Chaupar*, *Nard* (Persian backgammon) and cards were all popular with every class of the people. A fierce controversy went on in orthodox circles over the religious validity of these amusements. Orthodox opinion was unanimous in condemning gambling of all kinds. Some clever theologians even discovered a tradition of the Prophet purporting to declare that the playing of *Nard* was a sin. A similar weighty exposition of their case was attributed to the wise Ali, who was reported to have considered chess as detrimental to proper intellectual development. The case of the opposition was simple and was based entirely on common sense and personal experience. They considered both chess and Persian backgammon as two excellent aristocratic recreations which were quite harmless and refined and warmly defended the wide popularity of these games.³

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³ Compare the details of the controversy in T.I., 171.

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The authority of sacred injunctions could hardly influence them to change this realistic view of their amusements.

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(a) *Chess.*—Chess, according to all accounts, was considered to be the aristocrat of all indoor games. ‘It is impossible to live without some kind of recreation’ said the wise Harun-ur-Rashid, ‘and for a monarch, I can suggest no better diversion than chess’.¹ Such was the position the game had occupied in India since ancient times. Our period was especially happy in the progress of the game and a famous Indian chess player named Abu’l Fath Hindi occupied an international position and fame for his proficiency in the game.² Hasan Nizami, Amir Khusrau, and Malik Muhammad Jaisi make numerous references to the game of chess which reflects its wide popularity among all classes. Jaisi in particular depicts a realistic scene in which Sultan Ala-ud-din Khalji and Raja Ratan Sen engage to play a game of chess inside the Rajput fortress of Chitor.³ The Indian origin of chess has sometimes been disputed on insufficient grounds. The point was not so much in dispute in the time of Amir Khusrau who is an enthusiastic advocate of the Indian origin of chess. Historical evidence is not wanting to prove that the claim of India is indisputable.⁴ Besides the present game of chess, another variety referred to as *Shatranj-i-kamil* or ‘quadruple chess’ was also played during this period.⁵ (b) *Chaupar, playing cards, etc.*—The Indian origin of *Chaupar* has never been disputed. It is an ancient game which is played even nowadays under three different names—*Pachisi*, *Chausar*, and *Chaupar*, the difference consisting not in the rules of the game or in the manner of playing but in minor and negligible respects.¹ The game of *Chaupar* was played, as it is to-day, with sixteen pieces in four sets each of a different colour. The game is generally played by four players in teams of two each. Each player has four pieces with him which he moves on the diagram of chaupar according to the throw of the dice (or nowadays, of cowries). The diagram of chaupar may be described as follows :—take two sets of two parallel lines crossing one another at right angles in the middle. This intersection of the four lines forms a square in the centre and four rectangles adjoining the four lines of this square. Leaving the central square as it is, the four rectangles are divided into 24 squares in three rows of eight squares each.² The playing of chaupar was especially popular among the Hindus, particularly among the Rajputs. The Mughal Emperor Akbar later substituted human figures for the pieces of chaupar and turned it into the amusing game of *Chandal-mandal*.³

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¹ Compare *ibid.*, 163.

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² Compare Bland, 17.

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³ Compare T.M., 12, for a description of Hasan Nizami in metaphors borrowed from the game of chess. Similar descriptions of Amir Khusrau in *I’jaz-i-khusravi* and other works. Compare the account of Malik Muhammad Jaisi in P. (hin), 257.

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⁴ Compare the opinion of Amir Khusrau, K.K., f. 709. Mr. Bland is an advocate of the Persian origin. Irwin, in his book on chess claims to have successfully traced the origin of chess to China, the home of many inventions. He bases his opinion on some very ancient Chinese MS. (which he did not examine for himself) and attributes the discovery to the talents of a Chinese general who wanted to engage his soldiers in a game, to keep them away from politics. Macdonnel in *J.A.R.S.*, 1898, ‘Origin and early history of Chess’ has made it clear that there is positive evidence of an Indian embassy visiting Chosrau Anusharvan towards the end of the sixth century and of the introduction of chess in Persia through this embassy at about the same time. The story of the Indian embassy to Persia is found in every important Muslim history that deals with the subject. *Nard* is claimed to have been introduced into Hindustan from Persia on the return of this embassy.

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⁵ This ‘Quadruple chess’ (*Chaturaji*, ‘the four king game’) according to Macdonnel is referred to by a Sanskrit writer of the late 15th and early 16th century, though it existed much earlier. This game was played by

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¹ Compare Crooke’s Herklot, etc., 333-5, for modern *chaupar*.

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² Compare A.A., I, 218-9, for a diagram of *chaupar*; also P., 22, for a game in progress. Note that the Kshatriyas still retained their reputation of ‘being without equals in swordsmanship, the virtue of generosity’ and of course in gambling by throwing the dice of chaupar. Compare the interesting observations of Macdonnel on the relations of chaupar with the ancient *Chaturanga*, J.R.A.S., 1898, 140. Compare the popularity of chaupar with Hindu saints. Mira Bai plays a game of chaupar with her favourite god Girdhar (*vide* Macauliffe, 348). Compare P. (hin), 141, for a whole description of Malik Muhammad Jaisi in metaphors borrowed from chaupar.

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³ Compare A.A., 219, for a description of Chandal-mandal.

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Mention may be made in this connection of the game of *Nard* or the Persian backgammon, which was introduced into Hindustan very early in the Muslim period. All kinds of four persons with two dice, each piece moving according to the number of the throw. A board of 64 squares was used for this game, with 32 figures forming four groups of eight, each group consisting of a king, elephant, horse, and chariot in the first row and four foot soldiers in front of them in the second. It was so arranged that the chariot always occupied the left-hand corner of the side facing the player. Thus there were four kings, each attended by figures representing the four members of the army, while the minister was absent. It is difficult to account for the origin and development of this game, but Bland supports the Persian claim. This ‘quadruple chess’ was played by Timur and is supposed to be the parent of the ordinary chess, which, according to this theory, is its abridged form. See Bland, 5-6.

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refinements were introduced in making its board and pieces.¹ *Nard* was played on a wooden board, square in shape and divided into 24 squares of equal size. It was played with thirty pieces in two sets of fifteen, each set of one distinct colour.² It was on the lines of *Nard* that Humayun introduced a game in which human pieces were set in motion.³ The tradition mentions the popular fact that *Nard* was brought to India from Persia in return for chess which was introduced there from this country.

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¹ Compare M.T., I, 174, for *Turi* a kind of *nard* played by Malik Kafur. There are many references to *nard* in *I’jaz-i-Khusravi*.

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² Compare T.I. (II), 164.

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³ Compare the description of this game in Khvand Mir, 155-6.

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The playing of cards (*Ganjafa*) appears to have been first introduced into Hindustan by the Mughal Emperor Babur.⁴ Akbar seems to have made certain improvements in the game which became widely popular during his reign. The old Mughal pack of cards was made up of eight suits of twelve cards each, the Queen and the Jack of the present pack being replaced by one *Wazir* or Premier. The old Mughal cards have not gone out of use altogether, even now.⁵

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⁴ Compare the account of *Babur-nama*, 307.

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⁵ Compare A.A., I, 220; also Crooke’s Herklot’s Islam, etc., 335.

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In all indoor games there is an imperceptible temptation to play for stakes. The Indian tradition of gambling was a very ancient and a hallowed one. In the ordinary game of *Chaupar*, as has been mentioned, a dice or *pansa* was used. It was a four-sided piece usually made of ivory, the sides marked with one, two, five and six dots respectively. Three such sets were used in playing for stakes.⁶ Gambling was by no means confined to the lower classes. Gulbadan relates that when the royal family was in Kabul, Humayun used to play games for stakes. He used to distribute twenty gold pieces each among the players, both gentlemen and ladies, which served as a deposit for the stakes.⁷

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⁶ Compare the account of Ain-i-Akbari, II, 190, for the prevalence of gambling in Hindustan; P.P., 148, for the use of dice.

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⁷ Compare G., 77.

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Among other minor amusements we may mention pigeon flying and cock-fighting. The orthodox Muslims did not object to pigeon flying so strongly as to the ‘accursed’ cock-fighting.

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People in general, however, sought their advice and guidance neither in the one or the other amusement.¹ Sultan Ala-ud-din Khalji maintained a regular pigeon-house which appears to have descended to him from his predecessors. With Akbar, especially in his younger days, pigeon-flying became a passion. The young Prince used to feed his own birds and used to call the amusement by the romantic term *Ishq-bazi* (love-making).²

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¹ Compare the attitude of Muslim orthodoxy to pigeon-flying and cock-fighting in T., 20; also I.K., I, 179.

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² For Ala-ud-din's pigeon-house, an indirect reference in B., 318; A.N., II, 317-8, for Akbar.

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