Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan (1200–1550 A.D.) c7.s4.t1: Other Manners
Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan (1200–1550 A.D.) c7.s4.t1
- Language
- English
Other Manners
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A. Public appearance and behaviour.—We have already said something about the Sultan and the distinctions and honours of the nobility. The rest of the people were guided by the behaviour and manners of the higher classes. The adage, that gravity and appearance maketh a man, was widely popular. It was commonly believed that the inaccessibility of a monarch was his most useful asset. People honoured him because they could view him only from a respectable distance.⁵ We have already said that when noblemen went out they were conveyed in rich palanquins and were usually preceded by chargers with costly trappings and were surrounded by a crowd of retainers, composed of horsemen, footmen, horn-blowers, torch-bearers, musicians, and servants. In special cases, the nobles had the further right of having drums beaten in their procession when they were moving about outside the capital city.¹
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⁵ Compare M.A., 106.
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¹ Compare the description of a gentleman in public, in Raverty, 660; Major, 14; the privilege of drum-beating, A., 443.
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These ideas of public behaviour reacted on personal manners. Dignity and pride were the outstanding features of the contemporary nobility. Duels, as we have mentioned, were fought, and challenges were freely given and accepted. Not a few wars were carried on in pursuance of these notions of personal honour. It is related that when the Raja of Warangal handed over all his hoards and treasures to Khusrau Khan, the General of Sultan Mubarak Shah Khalji, the latter still suspected that the former had not carried out his agreement faithfully. When these accusations were conveyed to the Raja, he realized his utter helplessness against the General of the Sultan, but this did not stop him from sending a dignified refusal to give any more explanations. The Raja proudly told him that he had too good an opinion of himself to care for the threats and favours of the Khan.² It is unnecessary to recount similar instances from Rajput or even from Muslim history. Amir Khusrau correctly interpreted the aristocratic feeling when he said that the ‘silent heights of a mountain peak safeguard its dignity and grandeur’.³
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² Compare the account of Amir Khusrau in *Kulliyat*, 696; also J.H., 86, for classical examples of Hindu honesty.
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³ M.A., 113.
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This, however, did not prevent people from being extremely courteous and amiable. We have already referred to the courtesy which was usually shown to the fair sex. Similarly, when a visitor called on a nobleman, the latter greeted him by rising from his seat and advancing a few steps to receive the visitor. On conducting him to the drawing-room he first insisted that the visitor should occupy a seat, which was probably more comfortable and elevated than his own, and in any case, compelled the visitor to sit beside him. Some fresh fruits of the season were immediately put before him for refreshment. If the visitor came with an offering (*bhaint*) the host returned the compliment with a gift of greater value on their parting. In fact, this custom became universal and was known as ‘the parting gift’ (dasturi-i-raftan).¹ We have already spoken of the royal custom in this respect.
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¹ Compare the account of Ibn Batuta in K.R., II, 8; also I.K., II, 265-6, Raverty, 722-3. The custom of Bhaint is still prevalent in the United Provinces, especially among the village-folk. ² Compare A., 237, for an illustration. ³ Compare for rules of conversation M.A., 113-117, 66, 68; K.R., II, 104. ⁴ Compare the view of Tuhfa-i-Nasa'ih, 15b. ⁵ Compare an amusing instance in K.K., 463. A Sayyid was offended at some remarks of Amir Khusrau. In his apology, the poet called on the most sacred objects to vouch for his innocence, namely, God, the Prophets of God, Muhammad, his ten associates and his descendants, the Imams and the saints of Islam, finally (and this was very delicate and more sacred) the prayer-carpet of his Pir or spiritual preceptor.
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If a nobleman paid a ceremonial visit to another nobleman, he usually went on a fine charger. His host came some distance to receive him. On approaching each other, they alighted from their horses, and after removing their parasols or other distinguishing encumbrances, they advanced towards each other. The situation ended in their meeting half way in a warm and hearty embrace. Then they rode back together to the house of the host, where the guest was surrounded with every comfort and invited to partake of the choicest food.²
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B. Conversation.—In a formal gathering, one was not supposed to begin a conversation with someone else unless spoken to. Even when the difficulty had been overcome, the conversation did not progress beyond certain well-defined limits. It was brief and pleasant. The speaker refrained from making any references to his own achievements or generosity. The conversation was carried on in a soft and sweet tone. Scrupulous care was taken to avoid offensive remarks, for as their popular saying warned them ‘an indiscreet word often leads to very awkward complications’. No indelicate language was used in any circumstances. Vulgar jokes or rude remarks were not replied to and loud laughter was avoided. In a word, short and refreshing were the watchwords of conversation.³
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The question of oaths is somewhat difficult to answer. The orthodox, as a rule, did not permit swearing, under any condition whatever.⁴ But if the solemnity of an occasion demanded, careful selection was made from among holy objects for taking oaths.⁵ The soldier had a weakness for swearing. A refined military general confined himself to the use of ‘Haqqa’ (‘by God’).¹ The sanctity of a word in certain cases was permitted to be vouched for by such oaths as those of Allah, the Prophet, the Shari‘at, the Imam, the Qur’an, the ‘sword’, and the ‘salt’.² The profuse oaths of common people and their way of swearing do not bear repetition. The Hindus usually took an oath by the Ganges to add force and authority to their statement.³ Among Rajputs the throne of the ruler and Satis were sacred.
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¹ Compare the instance of Martyr Prince, B., 67.
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² Compare D.R., 250, for an account of the pledges ‘Ala-ud-din Khalji extracted from Malik Kafur on his death-bed.
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³ Compare a reference in Tarikh-i-Muzaffar Shahi, 25.
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Mention may be made in this connection of the custom of avowing a friendship or an alliance on solemn occasions. Among the Rajput the offer and acceptance of betel-leaf (bira) served to bind those who accepted it. Another manner of avowing an alliance was by tying the waistbands or the corners of each other’s garments together and thus advancing in the face of the enemy. This original Hindu custom later spread among the Muslims also.⁴
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⁴ Compare the account of Miyan Kala Pahar, an Afghan noble in W.M., 37b; also E.D., I, 313. Tod refers to a moving illustration from later Mughal history, when Raja Abhai Singh of Marwar accepts the bira. Vol. II, 1040.
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C. Hindu Manners.—The Hindu manners, as a whole, were sweet and informal and not quite so sophisticated and demonstrative as those of the Muslims. On arrival, a guest in a Hindu house was welcomed with special forms. In ordinary cases betel-leaf and flowers were offered to the visitor.⁵ In the case of a distinguished visitor a platform was raised, flowers were strewn over it, and sandal-wood paste was held in readiness to rub on the forehead. Arti was also performed by the waving of a few wick lamps before him to remove the possible effects of the Evil Eye.⁶ If the visitor was the Guru or the spiritual preceptor of the family, he was marked out for the highest honours. On arrival, his feet were washed, in perfumed water if the host could afford the expense. Sandal-wood paste was then rubbed all over his body; a garland of flowers was put round his neck and a tuft of Tulsi flowers on his head.
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⁵ Compare for illustration P. (hin), 262; P.B. LXIX ; Sudamacharita, 10.
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⁶ P.B., CCC.
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After these preliminaries, the host showed his personal devotion by prostrating himself at the feet of his Guru and by making obeisance to him with folded palms. The wife of the devotee personally cooked the food for the Guru.¹ This Guru tradition has left its impress on present Hindu manners.
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¹ Compare Sircar, 54, 167; Sudamacharita, 14. Compare in this connection some remarks of S. Saklatvala (sometimes M.P. for Battersea) in a letter which he addressed to M.K. Gandhi, the Indian political leader. This letter was widely published by Indian papers early in March, 1927. After reviewing the ordinary behaviour of Indian crowds who used to pass by Gandhi with folded hands and downcast eyes, he proceeds to comment on what he witnessed himself in Yeotmal. 'However, I strongly object to your permitting my countrymen and countrywomen to touch your feet and put their fingers in their eyes. Such touchability appears to be more damnable than untouchability, and I would sooner wish that two persons did not touch each other than that one human being should be touched by another in the way in which you were touched. The depressed classes were subject to a sort of disability, but this new phase of a man of the depressed class worshipping the feet of his deliverer is a more real individual depression and degradation of life, and however much you misunderstand me, I must call upon you to stop this nonsense'.—'Is India different?' London, 1927 (a pamphlet.)
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1. Hindu Women.—The woman was treated with special respect in a Hindu home. If she was a mother, she was marked out for special devotion, as we have already mentioned. For instance, before setting out on an errand, the Hindu would not forget to bow at the feet of his mother and ask for her blessing.² It is difficult for a Hindu to remember his mother without being deeply moved by it. The relations between the husband and the wife were somewhat formal though sweet and delicate. On occasions of deep emotion the wife rubbed her forehead or her eyes against the feet of her husband to show her feelings of devotion. The husband replied by an equally tender kiss on her forehead. Beyond these limits they did not usually go in public. If she was a young bride, the wife slightly covered her face before her husband in public with the hem of her shroud or *sari*, out of modesty.³ The relations between other men and women were formal, though gallantries of a most delicate nature were not wanting between the two sexes.⁴
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² Compare Sircar, 9, for an illustration.
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³ Compare P. (hin), 290. Compare *ibid*., 280.
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⁴ Compare Tod, I, 364-5, for an appreciation and significance of 'the festival of the bracelet'. Rakhi or Rakshabandan is one of the few occasions when a Hindu maiden bestows with the gift of the bracelet the title of adopted brother. The bracelet is sometimes returned with the gift of a corset of silk. This interchange of gifts binds the two in most delicate and intimate.
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Among other Hindu manners reference may be made to a general spirit of humanity and kindness. Apart from rations of food that were distributed to the poor, cold and refreshing water was also given to passing travellers and thirsty wayfarers in the hot season.¹
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¹ Compare T., 28, for its influence on Muslims.
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2. *Ahimsa (or Non-violence).*—Reference may be made in this connection to the practice of extreme ‘non-violence’ among a section of Hindus in Gujarat. The Hindus all over the land were extremely kind to all animate beings. The killing of animals and bloodshed in general were looked upon with horror and repulsion.² In Gujarat, the home of Jainism, this attitude was carried to extreme and somewhat ridiculous lengths. For instance, some people of Gujarat used to buy insects and birds to save from slaughter or confinement. They sometimes even paid big ransoms to buy criminals from justice. If they walked on the roads, they shrunk back from the ants and insects. They took their meals only during the day, before sunset, for fear of injuring insects in the darkness of the night. In fact, a class of ascetics arose who bred lice and worms in their hair and body and were highly respected on that account. Cunning beggars scared these Gujaratis into compulsory charity by a pretence of committing suicide. Varthema, after his visit to Gujarat, was thoroughly convinced that the Gujaratis would be saved but for their lack of Christian baptism for ‘they never do to others what they would not that others should do unto them’. For this extreme goodness of heart, as the shrewd traveller observed, the Muslim conquerors had deprived the Gujaratis of their kingdom and the power to rule themselves.³
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² Compare K.K., 709, for the observations of Amir Khusrau who even believes that the mildness of a Hindu peasant persuades the pestering deer to leave his fields without there ever arising the necessity of an untoward show of violence. Compare the sentiments of Vidyapati on non-violence in P.P., 112.
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³ Compare Barbosa, I, 111-12; Varthema, 109.
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In other respects, the duties of neighbours were not neglected and people took sympathetic and beneficial interest in the business and affairs of their absent neighbours. The extreme usefulness and value of such neighbourly sympathy will be better relations and as Tod observes, scandal itself never suggests any other tie to the devotion of a man.
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appreciated when it is realized that military duties sometimes called a soldier for months on end to distant places.¹
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¹ Compare an illustrative story in the *Tarikh-i-Daudi*, 14-15.
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3. *Personal Hygiene.*—No account of Hindu manners can be complete without some reference to their religious ideas, which also influenced Muslim customs to a considerable extent. We have already referred to the system of castes and domestic customs. The ideas of personal hygiene were equally influenced by religious beliefs. The fear of defilement and pollution haunts the imagination of an orthodox Hindu to a very extraordinary degree. For instance, should a woman be undergoing her courses, she was unclean during the period and for twelve days afterwards. She was segregated and was not allowed to touch any eatables or the clothing of male members or to enter the precincts of the kitchen.² There was an almost inexhaustible catalogue of objects of defilement which would have made everyday life absolutely unbearable but for the practical ingenuity of the Hindu mind. Side by side with these polluting objects there is an equally extensive range of purifying objects which succeed in counter-acting the influence of the others. Those who are anxious to read the details would find the necessary information in the pages of Abu’l Fazl.³ If a person succeeded in enlisting the good-will of the Brahman priest, he could make his life fairly agreeable and even pleasant.
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² Compare A.A., II, 183.
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³ Ibid., 170.
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Among other manners we may mention that a special sanctity attached to those fortunate people who were born on the western side of the river Karamnasa in Bihar or in the Upper Gangetic plains and also died in that sacred region. Any indiscreet venture beyond these geographical limits degraded their future incarnation and there was every danger of their being born in a very disagreeable state of life at the next birth. The belief still survives in a modified and local form.⁴ It was natural for the Muslims in these conditions to assimilate some of these and other Hindu beliefs and prejudices.
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⁴ Compare the observations of Babur, B.N., 343b. Compare I.G.I. under ‘Karam-nasa’ for the fact that the belief still lingers. Compare also Shah, 144, for the ridicule of Kabir on the stigma that attached to deaths in Maghar (Basti District, U.P.).
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We have already noticed the influence of caste and the Hindu domestic customs on Muslims. We shall notice a few more in this connection. When a person entered a mosque, he was to put his right foot first and any breach of this injunction was reprehensible.¹ Similarly he was to be particularly on his guard against pollution. For instance, without ceremonial ablutions it was a sin to touch the Qur'an. Again, meals were forbidden to anyone in a state of impurity. A Muslim was warned not to urinate in a state of complete nakedness. Sleeping after the midday meal was an act of piety which suited the hot climate of the plains very well. Regular baths and the cleaning of teeth and other customs were common to members of both communities.²
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¹ Compare M.T.I., 468, for Humayun sending back a visitor as a punishment for the breach of observance and ordering him to re-enter in accordance with the approved manner.
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² For Hindu bath, compare K.K., 706. But they did not use bathrooms (Frampton, 142) on a large scale and were partial to running water. For drinking water they carried their own vessels (vide Yule, II, 342 ; also A.S., 32). It is amusing to note in this connection that the right hand alone was used for taking food and for all clean and becoming purposes (vide Yule, II, 342). On entering the house, a Hindu left his shoes at the door. P. (hin), 250. Cow-dung was universally used to plaster the floor of a house and the operation had to be done quite often (vide Varthema, 155).