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The World of Courtesans c12: 9 Courtesans in Mediaeval Times in Other Parts of India

The World of Courtesans c12

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English

9 Courtesans in Mediaeval Times in Other Parts of India

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THE PATTERN OF life and of the professional conduct of the courtesans and the *vitas* was the same in the rest of India as in Kashmir. The activities of the *goshthis* went on as before. The number of prostitutes and courtesans had risen considerably and the rakes continued to act as they did in former times. Mediaeval Sanskrit literature provides us with a great deal of material on the general characteristics of the courtesans, their greed for money, their habit of exploiting their clients and the ruses employed to cheat them. We are told of their youth and beauty, their unstable character, and the risk involved in consorting with them. We are told of the ways of procuresses, pimps, barbers and of the *vitas* employed by them.

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In keeping with the growth in prostitution, the number of synonyms for prostitutes also grew. Hemachandra in the *Abhidhanachintamani*, III. 532-34 gives the following names for a prostitute. The exact differences in the status of each type is not defined. They are *sadharanastri* (a strumpet), *ganika* (a courtesan), *panapanyangana* (a woman who could be enjoyed for a *pana*), *bhujishya* (a mistress), *lanjika rupajiva* (one who lived on her beauty, a demimonde), *varavadhu*, *varamukhya* (a chief courtesan), *kuttani* (a bawd) and *sambhali* (a prostitute). The quarters in which the prostitutes lived was the *Veshyashraya*, *pura* and *vesha*. The officer in their charge was known as *Veshyacharya*.

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Drinking was a necessary adjunct of the *vesha* culture and, therefore, mediaeval Sanskrit dictionaries contain the names of wines, the methods of fermentation, the ingredients used etc. There were regular inns and taverns known as *shunda*, *madhuvara* and *madhukrama* and people met there to drink (*sapiti*, *sahapana*, *apana*, *panagoshthika*) in cups (*galvarka*, *chashaka*, *anuvarshana*). The delicacies were *upadamsa*, *avadamsa*, *chakshana*, *madyapasana*.

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A fair picture of the courtesans of this period and of the environment in which they worked is to be found in several story books, such as the *Kuvalayamala* written in 779 A.D. by Udyotanasuri at Jalod in Rajasthan; *Shringaramanjari Katha* of Bhojadeva, the famous ruler of Malwa (c. 1010-1054 A.D.), the *Nammayasundari Kaha* of Mahendra Suri and the *Manasollasa* of Somesvara written in 1131 A.D.

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The courtesans and the women of the town congregating to see the royal processions, chatting among themselves and discussing the chief figure became almost a motif in literature. Such a scene is described in the *Kuvalayamala* several times. For instance, when the Prince Kuvalayachandra's procession reached the square situated in the middle of the town, the courtesans (*nagarakula-balika*) thronged to see him. One with heavy haunches was unable to reach the door and was angry with her friends who had already reached the spot. Others with full bosoms rushed about in a flurry. A shy girl came to the door under the pretence of watching the movements of the crowd. Some were stirred by the desire to leave the company of their elders. They were stupefied when they were asked questions. One gazed at the road and turned her eyes as though they were sewn together and at that moment her pearl necklace snapped strewing the pearls on the floor. The jewelled zone of another tinkled and another's was displaced in the rush.

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Some of the girls stood facing the street, some congregated near the doors and some even came out of the doors. Some of them stood on the different storeys of the houses, others gathered in the courtyards and still others stood in the squares. As a matter of fact they occupied every position of vantage. One could almost hear their prattle.

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One said, "You hussy, why do you push me around with your big breasts?" "My friend, leave my hair hanging behind like peacock feathers." "You occupying the vantage point! Push away your big golden bottom. Make room for me. You are not the only one here interested in seeing what is happening." "You slut, do not pull hard, the golden plaques of the necklace might break." "My friend, leave me alone, my earrings are broken." "You slut, victory for the prince!" "You shameless one, put back in its place the garment which has slipped from your bosom."

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The prince attracted by these women observed the state to which they had been reduced. The arduous love-life and their sleepiness was reflected in their flushed appearance. Some were so intoxicated by the drinks offered by their lovers that they looked crestfallen The condition of some was pitiable The lovers had not kept the assignation.

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One said, "Friend, the prince is like Kamadeva." The second retorted, "You fool, don't talk nonsense Kama only troubles poor women, but the prince uproots the tusks of the enemy's elephants " Another girl said, "Friend, watch the broad chest of the prince He appears to be Narayana himself," but yet another shouted: "If he were Narayana, he would have been dark, but his body shines like molten gold." The third said, "His beauty makes him appear like the full moon." Quick came the retort. "The moon has blemishes, but the prince has none" The fourth said: "He is Indra himself" And the other answered: "If he were Indra, his body would have been marked with a thousand eyes, but the body of the prince is flawless "

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The fifth said: "He seems like Shiva" And the answer was: "Half of Shiva's body is that of a woman, the prince's body is whole and blameless." The sixth compared him to the sun and the rejoinder was, "The sun troubles the world with this heat, the Prince pleases everybody." The seventh compared him to Skanda Quick came the retort: "Skanda's body is made of many parts, but the gods and goddesses must have fashioned the prince slowly and with great care."

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The effect of the prince's beauty on the courtesans and on other women was instantaneous. Some of the women began playing musical instruments, others recited *gathas*, some spoke out loudly and others began imitating the cries of the *koels*.

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The courtesans stretched their bodies, sighed deeply and affected a kind of modesty. They laughed, they pressed their lips with their teeth; they exposed their thighs. They trembled, they scratched their ears and embraced their friends. They exposed their navels and entered their bed-rooms

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The *Kuvalayamala* also gives a realistic description of the conversation of the courtesans in their houses: "Hullo Pallanika, get the bedroom ready, wipe and clean the painted walls (*chittabhitti*). Put camphor in the wine, decorate the flower house (*kusumamālaghara*), draw a creeper pattern (*pattalaya*) on the mosaic floor, arrange a layer of flowers on the bed, blow the incense pot, confront the songsters, prepare the *pan*, put the camphor crystals in a casket. Bring the *kakkola* pills, make ready the bed near the window, give me a waternut, bring me the necklace and the garlands, light the lamp Bring the wine in. Your hair will be immersed in the wine pot; ask for the wine pitchers to be brought, hand over the wine cups and place near the bed all kinds of foods and drinks."

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The *Kuvalayamala* further notes the behaviour of the courtesans (*nayarakula-sattha*).

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"Friend! My lover is expected any moment, therefore, adorn me well Leave it all alone I do not want to increase the weight of my body."

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"O friend! While leaving me my lover scratched a *tilaka* on my forehead" Hearing this, her friend laughed.

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Pleased at the prospect of dalliance with the lover, she grew excited and in a hurry placed the zone on the neck and her necklace round her haunches. Another courtesan whose heart was much pleased was wholly preoccupied with the thought of love She began to apply a saffron *tilaka* on the forehead with the help of a mirror. One courtesan did not speak about her love but expressed it through meaningful glances. Another having sent a *duti* to her lover, forgot to proceed in that direction and entered her own house instead. Expecting her lover to take that path a courtesan meditated in the darkness like a *yogi*.

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Her friend observed, "You say that you are proceeding to meet your lover this day, but you do meet him every day."

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"I have to go to my lover's house for the first time today." She cogitated in this fashion. Then she became more and more frightened and sorrowful.

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The street was covered by a veil of darkness. She was quite flurried and the pleasure of meeting the beloved abated.

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"Love is like a shield, and her faultless overtures are like a sword." Saying this one of them proceeded to the lover's house.

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"The young fellow talks much about middle-aged women and is quite educated. But today I shall get him." One courtesan said this as she was about to leave the place.

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"Look! The prince's necklace about which women speak so much, is round my neck." Saying these words another woman left the place.

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A woman dressed in black silk stood under the full light of the lamp in the middle of the street. She seemed like a snake running away after biting a victim. Someone else full of fear seemed to be worshipping the street goddess with her blue and lotus-like glances.

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To another, her confidante said: "Decorating yourself, go to your lover's room." While she was proceeding to the lover's house she met her lover on the way. She was proud of herself and returned to the house.

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Somebody else found her lover sleeping soundly with another woman. She began to weep profusely and then blackening her white garment with collyrium, she left the place by a side lane.

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Another courtesan was waiting for her lover. He had fixed a meeting at a particular place, but in the meanwhile some other girl posing as an old acquaintance snatched him away.

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Purandaradatta, the king of Kaushambi, in order to find out for himself how prostitutes and their clients lived, walked unrecognized on the king's way and met a couple of young girls. He was curious to find out what they said to each other. He stopped and heard their conversation. One of them said: "Why was she shaking and perspiring." The reply was that it was due to an incident described by her friend. When the lover came, all the assembled courtesans drank together and were engaged in unrestrained love-making. It so happened that the lover who had too much to drink uttered the name of another woman. At this his beloved lost her temper and there was total confusion. The lover tried to assuage her sorrow but he did not succeed and she began to weep. The lover fell at her feet but she refused to accept his apologies. After some time her friend asked the lover to hide himself under the bed. When he had done what he was told to do, her friend told the mistress that he had left her. She told her that she and the other friend were also leaving for their homes. When the girl realized that everybody had left her, she was so unhappy that she wanted to hang herself, but at the last moment the lover appeared and there was a touching re-union.

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Courtesans also acted as attendants to kings. They massaged their bodies with oil, applied unguents, gave them their bath and served them their meals. In the morning auspicious chants were recited by the bawds. Then the courtesans approached the king. After the usual salutation they offered him water to rinse the mouth, twigs to clean the teeth and held the mirror in front of him. They sang auspicious songs, applied *gorochana*-yellow and mustard *tilaka* on his forehead.

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Dancing girls also worked vigorously to prepare the bath of a prince. When they heard from the chamberlain the news of the birth of prince Kuvalayachandra the courtesans went to the palace dressed in their finery. The music made a huge din; coloured powders were thrown and the courtesans danced with great abandon.

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The *Shringaramanjari Katha* by Bhoja (c 1010-1054) is remarkable inasmuch as the entire work is devoted to stories of courtesans. Unfortunately they are written in a very cramped literary style and the action is slow. The work is a *katha* which was supposed to have been related in the Dharagriha or the Fountain House at the request of his friend and at a time when spring was almost over. Then follows a description of the beauty of Shringaramanjari, the favourite courtesan of Bhoja. Her hair was braided; her curved temple was smeared with sandal paste. The nose ridge was long and the tip a little raised; the large dark eyes were elongated at the corners; the eyebrows were dark and arched; the lips were red like the *bimba* fruit The conch-like neck had a triple-line, the arms were slender like creepers and the hands like red lotuses. The breasts were plump and well-formed, the abdomen embellished by a delicate line of hair; the thighs appeared like plantain trees and her feet were like lotuses. She wore emerald earrings and a necklace, her cheeks were painted with a creeper design (*patralata*). She wore beautiful clothes, she knew the local dialects. She was skilled in the sixty-four arts and mainly in the art of love. She was bold in repartee and good at solving riddles She was a poet, a musician, a composer of essays. She was fond of amusements and she was also a psychologist. She drank very moderately As a matter of fact she was endowed with every quality that was desirable in a courtesan.

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The bawd Vishamashila—Shringaramanjari's mother—was a courtesan (*varavanita*) in the king's service. Her body was worn out, her hair was grey, the face wrinkled, the eyes sunken Her nose was flat and thick, the cheeks flabby, the teeth broken and protruding. She had a thick broad neck with swollen veins Her arms hung loosely by her side and her hands were rough. Her breasts sagged She was an expert in capturing men and in fleecing and destroying them. She enjoyed the company of drunkards. She was proficient in the arts She could understand the psychology of men and was an expert in *ars amoris*. She could subdue an arrogant paramour and was herself very clever at deception. She understood the psychology of harlots and could effect reconciliations. She showed everything but gave nothing. Even the rakes and rogues could not manage to cheat her Flattery, fraud and falsehood were virtues to her. She knew how to scold and instruct her daughter. She only cared for the rich and drove away the poor. Since she was quite flabby, she could not walk much. She was proud of her wit. As a matter of fact she was very much like the bawd Kankali in the *Samayamatrika*.

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One day she gave some advice to Shringaramanjari, "Child, do not be proud of your beauty. Mind the rogues. Be careful and cultivate your mind and take care of your wealth. Also learn the art of driving away certain lovers, and also effecting a reconciliation with them. Learn how to defeat these two kinds. Curious is the behaviour of the mind! The timid shows valour, the greedy becomes charitable, the miser becomes generous, the merchant acts like a *vita* and vice-versa. The working of the mind has to be analyzed dispassionately before you can deprive the client of his wealth. Listen to me The following twelve ragas have to be considered dispassionately. Indigo love (*nili raga*), brass love (*riti*), sober love (*akshiba*) form one group; magenta love (*manjishtha raga*), ochre love (*kashaya*) and terracotta love (*sakala*) form the second; saffron love (*kusumbha*), lac-love (*laksha*) and mud love (*kardama*) come under the third; and turmeric love (*haridara*), yellow love (*rochana*) and kampilya love come under the fourth group. In the first group the *akshiba* and *riti* are subservient to *nili*; in the second group *kashaya* and *sakala* are less steady, in the third group *rochana* and *kampilya* in the fourth are less steady. The *nili* and *manjistha* are steadfast love, saffron love does not tolerate any flattery and remains constant, while turmeric love is liable to stray."

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As a matter of fact this division of love is almost the same as in the *Samayamatrika*, except that in that work the classification is even more elaborate. To illustrate each kind of love enumerated by her she narrated a number of stories, each story emphasizing the kind of love a courtesan showed.

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In the story of Ravidatta the nature of indigo love (*nili raga*) is illustrated. Ravidatta was born in a Brahman family and by the age of sixteen had acquired knowledge of many arts including the art of love. One day his father advised him not to go near harlots and rogues, to eschew music and merry-making, pleasure gardens and gambling houses. However, after the death of his parents a company of vitas pressed Ravidatta to go and watch the festive procession of Kama. There in a garden named Kusmakara in the temple of Kama he saw a beautiful girl and at once fell in love with her and then returned to her house. She happened to be the courtesan Vinayavati, who sent the message of love to Ravidatta through her friend Sangamika. The young man fell a victim to the allurements. He began presenting to her costly gifts and large amounts of money and completely disregarded the warning of his elders. Vinayavati took him to fairs (*yatra*) and picnics. She divested him of his wealth and rendered him a pauper. Then through Sangamika she sent him a message that merchants from the Suvarnadvipa wanted to purchase her love for a large amount of money and she asked him not to come to her place. The lover was disconsolate, but his love proved too strong and after some days he decided to visit her place. There he was insulted. He requested Sangamika to intercede on his behalf but Vinayavati refused to recognize him. In spite of all this his love persisted and he passed the rest of his days trying to get occassional glimpses of his beloved.

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The second story illustrates "Magenta love". It is said that Vikramsimha a prince of Tamralipti fell in love with a beautiful courtesan named Malatika, daughter of Ekadamshtra She was at that time the mistress of a merchant. The prince sent to her his friend with a message of love, but Malatika promised to meet him later on as she could not break the contract with the merchant. Later on the meeting took place and she received a lot of gifts from him but as she gave him offence, his love for her waned gradually.

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The third story illustrates "Saffron love" (*Kusumbha raga*). It is said that in Vidisha there lived a beautiful courtesan named Kuvalayavali, daughter of Bhujangavagura. Madhava, a Brahman, who had amassed wealth from trade with Ceylon spent some days with her. That short period sufficed for her. She drained away his wealth from him. Madhava realizing that his dismissal from the courtesan's favour was imminent, expressed a desire to proceed to Malaya in search of wealth. Kuvalayavali pretended to raise a hue and cry. The clever bawd wanted some token of rememberance from him. Madhava enraged at this show of wickedness promised to give her his only garment. He took her to lonely spot. There he cut off her nose and ears. It is said in the end that the men afflicted with "Saffron love" could be revengeful and, therefore, should be given no cause for offence.

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In the fourth story "Turmeric love" is illustrated. It is related that a poor Brahman named Suradharman troubled by his poverty, reached the ocean and clad in a leather jacket (*charma chandataka*) worshipped it daily. As a result of this devotion he received the gift of an invaluable jewel from the ocean. Feigning madness, he hid the jewel carefully and reached Ujjayini where Devadatta, the beautiful courtesan of Vikramarka lived. Once while she was in search of a rich client she chanced to see the man and at once guessed that he possessed some invaluable treasure. She asked him from where he had come, the answer was that it was only known to his mother. Devadatta, however, brought him to her home, fed and clothed him and lived with him for six months. Realizing that she had guessed his secret, he decided to leave her. In spite of all kinds of entreaties from her and protestations of her deep love, he left her.

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However, when he started on his journey, Devadatta asked two of her girls to follow him and meet him in a village. She told them to show him no signs of recognition. They did as they were instructed and in the hearing of Suradharman said that Devadatta had died pining for him. Realizing that he had committed a sin he returned to her house and saw her coffin. Her mother, Makaradamnshtra, reviled him for his heartlessness. Thereupon, ready to give up his life he handed over the jewel to her. Seeing that the ruse was successful, Devadatta got up and welcomed the hero but after some days drove him out of the house.

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In the fifth story the story of Devadatta of Ujjayini is related. Once king Vikramarka asked her how a courtesan could win a person with sweet speech and show of love.

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At first she showed her unwillingness to answer the question, but when she was pressed to reply she related a recent experience. The other day a magic horse had carried her to a mansion where she was asked to act as a go-between When she refused to do this sort of work, she was given a beating, but when she cited the name of Vikramaditya as her protector, the miscreants were frightened They threw her from an aerial car on the parade ground and disappeared. This story naturally pleased Vikramarka who gave her rich presents.

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The seventh story deals with the cheating of a bawd. It is related that once during the summer two sons of a Brahman proceeded from their home to another country In the course of their journey they reached the Vindhya forest where their hunger pangs were allayed by two pigeons who voluntarily fell into the fire The younger brother who ate the flesh of the pigeon was miraculously blessed and found that five hundred gold pieces were placed every day into his bag Somehow, the brothers got separated and it so happened that the elder brother became the ruler of Magadha and the younger one happened to go to Kanchi where his lavishness attracted the attention of a greedy bawd, Makaradamstra She was the mother of the courtesan Karpurika. He spent many days with her daughter and she, at the instance of her mother, wormed out from him the secret of his lavish gift. She wanted to grab the entire treasure all at once, so she made the lover vomit out the female pigeon, the cause of the magical gift, and she ate up the pigeon herself.

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But now the magical force had departed, and soon the lover was driven away. Then with the help of his brother, the ruler of Magadha, he returned to Kanchi to avenge himself He entered into a liaison with the neighbouring courtesan of Karpurika and began to spend money on her. When he was asked how he had become so rich, he told her that it was due to the Siddhi magic which he had obtained at Shriparvata. Karpurika wanted to get hold of his fresh gains. She proposed an exchange between the dead body of the female pigeon and his Siddhi. He readily agreed to the proposal. He gave her the faked Siddhi. He himself swallowed the dead pigeon and with his magical power restored it and then returned to his brother.

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The eighth story deals with the adventures of the merchant Ratnadatta of Pundravardhana. He had received training in many arts and crafts. He secured the permission of his father to go abroad and earn his own living by joining the service of king Pratapamukuta. He took some money with him and a servant accompanied him. When the servant asked him how he hoped to live on such a small income, he told him that for the expenses on the journey he would depend on his skill in gambling and live on the money of the courtesans.

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In the course of the journey the party reached Vidiśā. There in the township of Bhaillasvamīdevapura lived a courtesan named Lavanyasundarī. She had come to dance in the temple. She caught a glimpse of Ratnadatta there and at once fell in love with him and swooned Her companion, Bakulikā explained to the dance teacher that her friend had swooned because of a headache and Bakulikā herself agreed to dance instead When she learnt of Lavanyasundarī's love for Ratnadatta, Bakulikā looked everywhere for him and found him sleeping in a lonely temple.

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She made out that he resembled her lost brother and invited him to go to her house But on the way she suddenly told him that she had changed her mind and had decided to take him to her friend's house. There they passed the night making love In the morning, however, Ratnadatta put 500 gold coins in the coverlet and left for the gambling house In her presence he won 50,000 *dramma* and ordered the keeper of the house to present 4,000 and 16,000 to Bakulikā and Lavanyasundarī respectively. Thereafter distributing 10,000 in charity, he proceeded to the house of his beloved. There he announced that he was proceeding to king Pratapamukuta to serve under him. Lavanyasundarī could not bear to be separated from him and decided to go with him

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The bawd watched her daughter's infatuation for Ratnadatta and she worked out a stratagem to separate the lovers. She approached the king and complained that her daughter was being forcibly carried away by a thug. The king at once ordered the arrest of Ratnadatta. A police officer proceeded to Ratnadatta's place but all he saw was a handsome young youth sleeping in the lap of his beloved. The thought struck him that the bawd was perhaps a liar. He waited for Ratnadatta to get up. Impatient at the officer's delay the king sent his slaves to bring back Ratnadatta but they too waited with the officer. His patience exhausted, the king himself visited him and was thoroughly impressed by Ratnadatta. He offered him a large number of villages as a gift but the young man refused the offer and decided to proceed onwards accompanied by Lavanyasundari.

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In course of time Ratnadatta reached Manyakheta and he and Lavanyasundari resided in the house of a courtesan named Chitralekha. One day while he was away hunting for a job, the king of Manyakheta happened to notice Lavanyasundari and fell in love with her. He sent a messenger to her house and asked him to bring her to him. He was told that if he failed in the task he would lose his nose and ears and even his life. Lavanyasundari heard the threat and went to the king of her own accord The king enjoyed her company and sent her on the next day with a hundred thousand coins. She accepted the gift on one condition that she should be allowed to leave at her own will. The king accepted the condition.

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On the day of Ratnadatta's return Lavanyasundari was expected to dance before the king. She asked her maid to wait near the elephant post and to show her necklace as soon as she saw Ratnadatta arrive. The maid obeyed her order and Lavanyasundari learning of Ratnadatta's arrival took advantage of the promise that the king had made to her and took leave of him.

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The king was intrigued by the behaviour of Lavanyasundari. He looked out and found her ready to wash the feet of Ratnadatta. Ratnadatta had learnt from his servants all that had happened So he stopped her from washing his feet and addressed her as mother. The king, pleased by his gallant behaviour, employed him.

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The ninth story deals with the love of a courtesan for Chaddalaka. It is related that once king Samarasimha invited her to perform the famous sword dance in the presence of his feudatories. Dressed in her best she proceeded to the court and began dancing, but when she saw that her lover was not there her steps became more and more unsteady. The dance master was worried and felt that she would fall down on the sword. So he requested the king to stop the dance. The king did so. When the girl was questioned she boldly confessed her love for Chaddalaka. She was forbidden to meet him. But she persisted in doing so

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In order to drive a wedge between her and Chaddalaka, the king sent her to another youth named Sundaraka, and she fell in love with him. He wrote about all that had happened in a note book. The next morning Ashokavati was sorry for what she had done. The king showed Sundaraka's note book to Chaddalaka and he knew that the king wanted Ashokavati for himself. However, in order to test her love he asked his friend to go to her in the garb of a Pashupata saint and inform her that Chaddalaka was dead When she heard the shocking news, she fell down dead and the lover soon died.

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The tenth story describes a Brahman named Vinayadhara of Kaushambi who while on a visit to the temple of Kalapriya Deva met a courtesan named Anangavati and fell in love with her. He began to frequent her house. When he had exhausted his money, he was driven out by the bawd. Undaunted by this action he tried to get in there again and again, but with no success. In order to punish the bawd, Vinayadhara picked up a dead snake one day. Then he borrowed some money and came to Anangavati's house. Finding everybody asleep, he dropped the dead snake on the bawd's body and punched her nose and lips just to show that the serpent had bitten her. When she saw the dead snake near her the bawd shrieked and Vinayadhara ran in with a stick and struck the dead snake. He also asked the servants to rub off the holes and get rid of the poison but the bawd fearing for her life, asked them to cut off her nose and lips. For this good deed he earned the thanks of Anangavati in the morning. She was grateful to him for saving the life of her mother

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The eleventh story deals with Pratapsimha, a feudatory of Mahendrapala of Kanauj and his courtesan. Pratapsimha who had a very ugly face once spent a night with the courtesan Malayasundari. He found a child asleep in the bed and Pratapsimha wanted to know whose child it was. Though the child was her niece, she out of fear told him it was her own. When he heard this, the lover became furious and scratched her body. The bawd brought the matter to the king's notice. The king called both the parties. Pratapsimha admitted to the king that he had scratched her and complained that she had teased him. The matter was dropped.

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The *Nammayasundari Kaha* by Mahendra Suri written in 1130 A.D. also throws some interesting light on the life of prostitutes in mediaeval India. It is related that in the city of Vardhamanapura there lived a rich merchant named Rishabhadatta He had a virtuous wife Viramati, and two sons, Sahadeva and Viradasa and a beautiful daughter called Rishidatta In course of time the daughter grew up into a charming maiden. Attracted by her youth and beauty, many young men approached her father for her hand. He, however, preferred to wait till he could secure a really suitable match for her

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It so happened that at that time Rudradatta, a Shaiva merchant from the city of Kupachandra, came to Vardhamanpura carrying a lot of merchandise and stayed at the shop (*bhandagarashala*) of his friend Kuberadatta. During his stay in the city Rudradatta witnessed a great sacrificial festival (*mahamaha*) People wore fine costumes, adorned themselves with ornaments and wandered about in the city. Attracted by the hustle and bustle of the crowd, the friends went out and found the youths (*nayarajana*) enjoying themselves. The actors (*nata*) performed plays and the *rasa* dancers jumped while the *chacchari* dancers gesticulated. The people watched the show (*pikkhana*) with rapt attention.

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While the show was on Rishidatta, who was splendidly decked and surrounded by friends, climbed on to the roof of the market and watched the performance. Attracted by her presence Rudradatta asked his friends who she was. They told him her name. Rudradatta knew that he had fallen in love with her and decided to seek the permission of her father to marry her. He was told that her father had decided to give her in marriage to a Jain. Such was the power of his love for her that he changed his religion for her sake. Some of his friends doubted the sincerity of his love. As soon as the marriage was performed Rudradatta returned to his city and Rishidatta was forced to change her religion to Shaivism.

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Meanwhile Rishabhadatta's daughter-in-law who was expecting a child expressed a longing to go and see the river Narmada. She visited it with her father-in-law and her husband They built there a city called Narmadapura. After some time a daughter was born to her and was named Narmadasundari

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Meanwhile a son named Maheshvaradatta was born to Rishidatta. The years passed and Narmadasundari grew up to be an accomplished beauty. When Rishidatta learnt about her beauty and accomplishments she at once conceived the idea of marrying her son to this lovely girl though the family stood in the way. In any case a message was sent to Narmadapura and the proposal was rejected Rishidatta was disconsolate but her son Maheshvaradatta asked her not to be so dejected and to take the rejection to heart. He said he would contrive to win Narmadasundari as a bride.

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In order to gain this end Maheshvaradatta took all kinds of merchandise and proceeded to Narmadapura. He persuaded his grandfather to grant him an audience. He was welcomed by his uncle and brought to the house. When he was staying at the house of his grandfather, Maheshvaradatta managed to meet Narmadasundari in upashraya and expressed a desire to become a Jain. Though Rishabhadatta doubted Maheshvaradatta's profession, he still gave her away in marriage to him.

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After the marriage Maheshvaradatta and his wife returned to their home town. Soon he was tired of a life of ease and comfort. So he decided to proceed to Yavanadvipa with his friend and with a lot of merchandise. When the ship was ready to sail, Narmadasundarī said that she wanted to accompany the party. She stuck to her decision in spite of the protestations of her husband. When they were on the high seas, she felt quite frightened.

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One day it so happened that Narmadasundarī heard somebody singing, and through listening to the sound of his voice, she managed to describe to her husband the singer and also some very intimate details connected with him. The husband, hearing her description, suspected her fidelity; he became jealous of the singer and began to think of ways of getting rid of his wife.

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One day the captain of the ship announced that the ship had reached an uninhabited island which had a deep pool of sweet water. He ordered the voyagers to proceed there and bring back fresh water. Here Maheshvaradatta saw a chance of getting rid of Narmadasundarī. He took his wife with him and asked her to rest in the forest till he returned. After reaching the ship he told his friends that some demon had devoured her. The ship sailed from the island and his evil design was fulfilled. Narmadasundarī after many adventures managed to meet her father who brought her back home.

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The descriptions of Narmadasundarī's wanderings throw very interesting light on the life of a prostitute. It is said that her voyage included a trip to Babbara Kula. She was received well there. The goods were taken down from the ship; the servants put up a tent and made a bed for her to rest on. The story goes on to state that the chief source of income of the ruler of Babbara came from merchants who visited houses of ill-fame. These were situated on the outskirts of the port town (*poyatthana puranam anto*).

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There lived in this area a famous courtesan named Hariṇi, who was appointed by the king to be the head of all prostitutes She received their earnings and she paid one-third or one-fourth of these earnings to the king.

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When she learnt of the arrival of the merchant Vīradasa, she sent him, through her maids, a present of clothes. The maids invited him to visit their mistress as a guest. Vīradasa, however, courteously declined the offer but in return sent her eight hundred silver *drammas*. Hariṇi felt insulted and returned the money. She insisted that she did not care for money but desired him. But when he again refused her invitation, she sent some strumpets (*bhujyā*) and some clever maids to lure him. At Vīradāsa’s place they happened to see Narmadāsundarī and were struck by her beauty. The maids again begged Vīradāsa to visit their mistress. The advice of his friends was that there could be no harm in visiting her merely for amusement. So he sent her a letter accepting her invitation.

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In the meanwhile, the maids returned to their mistress Hariṇī and told her of the beauty of Narmadāsundarī. Hariṇī decided to abduct her and confine her in an underground cellar. Having made the decision, Hariṇī made preparations to receive Vīradāsa. She anointed her body with perfumed oil, and got it massaged by her maids. She bathed and dressed herself in costly garments. She wore garlands and finally applied scent to her body. After meeting him and gaining his confidence, she persuaded him to give her his signet ring. The maids of Hariṇī took this ring to Narmadāsundarī and asked her to go in haste to visit Hariṇī’s house, where Vīradāsa lay desperately ill. They said that he had sent her this signet ring to convince her of the truthfulness of their statement. At first she hesitated but finally agreed to go. They put their plan into action and locked her up in an underground cellar. She lay there weeping and bemoaning her fate.

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When Vīradāsa returned to the tent where his wife Narmadāsundarī was staying, he did not find her there. He made inquiries about her, but they were all to no purpose. He approached the king but there again he found no help.

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Hariṇī continued with her intrigue. She told Narmadāsundarī that Vīradāsa had not paid what he owed her. As soon as the money was paid off, she would release her. Narmadāsundarī was disconsolate. She refused to touch any food but later on was persuaded to eat. Some time later Hariṇī told Narmadāsundarī that as the dues were not settled, she had to remain in captivity. Hariṇī proposed to her that she should lead the life of a courtesan. Seeing that there was no other alternative before her, Narmadāsundarī made an outward show of agreeing to the proposal.

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Harini made a long speech eulogizing the profession of a courtesan. According to her it gave freedom, wine flowed towards her, people danced to her commands and it brought money and precious gifts. All that she had to do was to pass on half of her income to the chief courtesan, out of which again she paid one fourth as taxes to the king.

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Naturally, Narmadasundari refused to accept her offer and the enraged Harini decided to torment her. Besides inflicting bodily punishments on her, she even went to the extent of asking one of her clients to rape her. When Narmadasundari was tortured thus, a kind-hearted prostitute came to her rescue.

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At this critical juncture, it so happened that Harini died suddenly. The ruler was informed of this. At his order the *panchayat* was summoned and was asked to select a beautiful and charming woman to serve as the head of the courtesans. All the courtesans attended dressed in their best, but the members of the *panchayat* took no notice of them. They, however, looked at Narmadasundari and at once appointed her the chief courtesan She, however, maintained the purity of her character and in the end she became a Jain nun

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In addition to describing the usual features of a courtesan's life, the story of Narmadasundari lays stress on two important points. Firstly, prostitution was a recognized profession, approved by the state which itself received from prostitutes about twenty-five to thirty-three per cent of their income in the form of taxes Secondly, the post of the chief courtesan was an elective one and the *panchayat* at the behest of the king conducted the election.

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The remarks of Alberuni (about 1030 A D.) and Edrisi on the subject of prostitution in mediaeval India are interesting. Alberuni observes ·

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*In reality, the matter is not as people think, but it is rather this, that the Hindus are not very severe in punishing whoredom. The fault, however, in this lies with the kings, not with the nation. But for this, no Brahman or priest would suffer in their idol-temples the*

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*women who sing, dance, and play. The kings make them an attraction for their cities, a bait of pleasure for their subjects, for no other but financial reasons. By the revenues which they derive from the business both as fines and taxes, they want to recover the expenses which their treasury has to spend on the army.*

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The famous Arab geographer Edrīsi observes that the king of Serendeb bought the wine of Iraq and Fars which he sold in his state for he liked to drink wine and he prohibited prostitution. He adds that the kings of India prohibited the use of liquor but permitted prostitution. The king of Khor, however, permitted both.

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Abu Zayd and others clearly state that the earnings of the courtesans who were attached to the temples were surrendered to the priests or to the other authorities of the temples for defraying the expenses of worship. Professor Sastri does not agree with this statement. Whatever may be said about the priests receiving money from the *devadasis*, the king (as was mentioned in the *Nammayasundari Kaha*) definitely received his share from the courtesans.

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The *Hudud Alam*, however, does not speak of the courtesans parting with any part of their income and giving it to the priests or to the king. He only mentions that outside the gate of Ramayan, a dependency of Multan, there stood a temple with a copper idol inlaid with gold and held in great reverence. Every day thirty dancing girls went round the idol with drums and tambourines and danced.

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The Vijayanagar empire, as late as the fifteenth century, organized prostitution for the benefit of the state. Abdur Razzak visiting Vijayanagar in 1442 A.D. observes:

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"Opposite the *darab-Khaneh* (the mint) is the house of the Governor, where are stationed twelve thousand soldiers as a guard, who receive every day a payment of twelve thousand *fanom*, live on the receipts of the houses of prostitution. The magnificence of the palaces of this king, the beauty of the young girls collected therein, their allurements, and their coquetry surpass all description. I will

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confine myself to the description of some particulars. Behind the *darab-Khaneh* is a sort of bazar, which is more than three hundred *gaz* in length and more than twenty in breadth. On the two sides are ranged chambers and estrades; in front of these are erected in the form of thrones several platforms constructed in beautiful stones. On the two sides of the avenue formed by the chambers are represented figures of lions, panthers, tigers, and other animals. All are so well drawn, and their movements have so natural an appearance, that you would think that these animals were alive. Immediately after the midday prayer they place before the doors of the chambers, which are decorated with extreme magnificence, thrones and chairs on which the courtesans seat themselves. Each of these women is bedecked with pearls and gems of great value, and is dressed in costly raiments. They are all extremely young and of perfect beauty. Each of them has by her side two young slaves, who give the signal of pleasure, and have the charge of attending to everything which can contribute to amusements. Any man may enter their locality, and select any girl that pleases him, and take his pleasure with her. Anything that he carries with him is delivered into the keeping of those engaged in the service of the houses of prostitution, and if anything is lost, these latter are responsible for it "

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"On the seventh day of the Mahanavami festival, some young girls with cheeks as full as the moon, and faces more lovely than the spring, clothed in magnificent dresses, and showing features like the freshest rose, charmed every heart, were placed behind a curtain opposite the king. On a sudden the curtain was raised and again fell, and the damsels arranged themselves for the dance with a grace calculated to seduce every sense and captivate every mind."

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Paes mentions the Vijayanagar courtesans on specific occassions. While describing the Mahanavami festival he observes:

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"And the king withdraws to the interior of his palace by that gate which I have already mentioned—that which stands between the two buildings that are in the arena (terreyro); the courtesans and bayaderes (i.e, the dancing girls of the temple and palace) remain dancing in front of the temple and idol for a long time."

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According to Paes, dancing girls were also summoned during the feasts. "For these feasts are summoned all the dancing-women of the kingdom, in order that they should be present; and also the captains and kings and great lords with all their retinues. ." During these festivals they were allowed the rare privilege of eating betel in the presence of the king.

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The so-called sacred prostitution in the institution of devadasi has been referred to by Alberuni. It was a very ancient Indian institution and has been referred to in the previous Chapters Mediaeval Indian literature, both Sanskrit and Prakrit, refers to the institution of devadasi, but these sources scarcely attach any sacred character to the *devadasi* system It is mentioned in the *Kuvalayamala* that to the temples of Avanti were attached courtesans (*vilasini*) who gave musical concerts and plied *morchhals* and held umbrellas. In another place, it is said that at eventide the temples resounded to the sound of music of beautiful girls accompanied by drums beaten. A third interesting reference to temple dancers is found in a passage describing the congregation in heaven, based on the crowd in a contemporary temple. The passage is translated below:

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"Some sang sweetly, some played instruments while some others danced A group of girls prayed, 'Follow the prescribed moral character and conquer with the supreme will the invincible.' Some attendant gods with folded hands placed on their foreheads prayed, 'Success to you! May you be blessed! May you fare well! Our Lord, success to you.' Some other goddesses held pitchers, fans, white *chauri* and white umbrellas in their hands, while others held mirrors. A group of apsaras holding *vinas* and *mridangas* in their bejewelled hands waited for the order of the chief god. The courtesans with unheard and unexcelled beauty moved languorously and danced."

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It is mentioned in the *Kuttanimatam*, 563 that the *devadasis* earned their livelihood from the temple (*tradashalayajivikam*) and that the profession and the infession after being heavily bejewelled was presented to a temple by kings and noblemen.

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(7) *Rudra-ganika* or *Gopika*: One who received regular wages from a temple which employed her to sing and dance at regular hours.

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A vivid though rather misleading feature of the *devadasi* system in thirteenth century Malabar is given by Marco Polo. He observes, "They have certain abbeys in which are gods and goddesses to whom many young girls are consecrated; their fathers and mothers presenting them to that idol for which they entertain the greatest devotion. And when the [monks] of a convent desire to make a feast to their god, they send for all those consecrated damsels and make them sing and dance before the idol with great festivity. They also bring meats to feed their idol withal; that is to say, the damsels prepare dishes of meat and other good things and put the food before the idol, and leave it there a good while, and then the damsels all go to their dancing and singing and festivity for about as long as a great Baron might require to eat his dinner By that time they say the spirit of the idols has consumed the substance of the food so they remove the viands to be eaten by themselves with great jollity. This is performed by these damsels several times every year until they are married."

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"The reason assigned for summoning the damsels to these feasts is, as the monks say, that the god is vexed and angry with the goddess, and will hold no communication with her; and they say that if peace be not established between them then things will go from bad to worse, and they never will bestow their grace and benediction. So they make those girls come in the way described, to dance and sing, all but naked, before the god and the goddess. And those people believe that the god often solaces himself with the society of the goddess."

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However, there is no indigenous authority to support the statement that the temple dancers were employed for the *bhoga* ceremony or that they danced naked before the god. In Gujarat these girls are said to have been employed by the *jogis* to test the continence of the novice. The girls tried to tempt him with their blandishments. If he remained indifferent, the *jogis* retained him, but if he showed any emotion, they expelled him from the society.

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In Karnataka the institution of public women had become common even before the establishment of the Vijayanagar empire, and continued later on the earlier pattern. Mahadeva, the general of the western Chalukyan king Vikramaditya VII in 1112 A.D. raised the temple of god Chandaleshvara at Ittagi, constructed a suburb and brought beautiful women to the spot and established them there.

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In Orissa as well, the institution of temple dancers was a recognized one. In the Megheshvara inscription of Ananga Bhimadeva (1190-1198 A.D.) the *devadasis* are mentioned. Dancing girls were appointed in the Brahmeshvara temple by the builder Kolavati. The author of the inscription, Uday, describes in a poetic vein the beauty of these dancing girls:

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"By him were offered to Shiva beautiful damsels (*devadasis*) like the fairies from heaven in whose lips there was nectar, in the ends of whose eyes dwelt Kama, in whose mouth and waist and other parts of the body lived *stambhana* and *mohana* charms and whose bodies were embellished with beauty."

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