The World of Courtesans c8: 5 Courtesans in the Kamasutra and the Natyashastra

The World of Courtesans c8

Language: English

5 Courtesans in the Kamasutra and the Natyashastra

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Courtesans in the Kamasutra and the Natyashastra

THE EARLY CENTURIES of the Christian era witnessed an unprecedented economic prosperity for India. In exchange for spices, aromatics, precious and semi-precious stones, silk and muslins of the finest quality and other luxury goods, Roman gold poured into this country. This surplus capital in its turn created an unprecedented internal demand for luxury goods and this is reflected in the art and culture of that period. Naturally, most of this gold came into the possession of the merchant princes who spent their millions in maintaining their splendid establishments, in making religious endowments and spending lavishly on public works. They also spent a part of it in patronizing courtesans who were known for their proficiency in the arts and were a very important factor in contemporary social life. The Kushana sculptures from Mathura and the Satavahana bas-reliefs from Andhra Pradesh perpetuate under the garb of *Mithuna* and *Yakshi* figures the memory of these licentious beauties. They reveal undreamt of pleasures of the flesh. They depict them inviting and soliciting men or engaged in their toilet or enjoying the pleasures of drinking and dancing, singing and roaming in gardens in the company of their lovers. The courtesans of the time lived in capitals and large commercial centres such as Bharukachchha, Ujjain, Mathura, Kausambi, Varanasi, Pataliputra and Vaisali, where there lived rich merchants who could afford to patronize them.

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Apart from the literary evidences which support the view that the *Vaishika* culture flourishing in the great Indian cities was a wealthy and prosperous one, an inscription of the second century from Mathura shows that *ganikas* had considerable influence there. It is inscribed on a tablet of honour (*ayagapata*) carved with a complete *stupa*, surmounted by a railing and approached by means of a flight of steps and an ornamental gateway. It may be translated as follows:

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Adoration to the Arhat Vardhamana. The daughter of the matron (*araye*) courtesan Lonashobhika (Lavanashobhika), the disciple of the Jain ascetics, the opulent (*vasuye*) Nanda has erected a shrine of the Arhat, a hall of homage (*ayagasabha*), a cistern and a stone slab at the sanctuary of the Nigrantha Arhats, together with her mother, her daughter, her son and her whole household in honour of the Arhats.

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The inscription is of great importance for the history of the institution of *ganikas*. It shows that no stigma was attached to the profession and even such stern moralizers as the Jain ascetics felt no scruples in accepting them as disciples. They allowed them to contribute to their pious foundations.

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The *Kamasutra* of Vatsyayana (written probably in the early centuries of the Christian era) is the most important source of information about courtesans and prostitutes in ancient India. Vatsyayana, who is modest enough not to claim any originality for himself, apparently systematized a considerable amount of floating material about courtesans, their education in arts and crafts, their artificial love, extortionate ways and the techniques employed by them to seduce their lovers, etc. According to Vatsyayana, the first compiler of information about prostitutes was Babhravya from Panchala (Bareilly District, U.P.). The *Vaishika* part of his book was covered by six of the seven chapters. They embrace almost all branches of *ars amoris*. Realizing the importance of *Vaishika*, Dattaka, at the instance of the courtesans of Pataliputra, wrote his *Vaishikamadhikaranam*. This, however, seems to have been a ponderous and specialized work. Vatsyayana, therefore, in order to emphasize its importance compressed Dattaka's work and incorporated the information and Dattaka's conclusions in a separate chapter in the *Kamasutra*.

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The *Jayamangala* commentary on the *Kamasutra* relates an interesting story about how Dattaka wrote his work on *Vaishika*. According to this legend, a Brahman from Mathura made Pataliputra his home. Here a son was born to him in his old age. The mother died as soon as the child was born. His father allowed someone else to adopt the child and in course of time the father also died. The boy was lovingly called Dattaka (the adopted one) by his adopted mother. He was a brilliant child and in course of time he became adept as a teacher in the traditional arts and sciences and was known as Acharya Dattaka. This great teacher, with a view to studying certain aspects of human behaviour which could only be learnt in the proximity of courtesans, approached them for enlightenment. Later on, at their request he wrote *Vaishikamadhtkaranam*, which dealt with the artifices adopted by the courtesans to please and entice their clients.

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In defining the goal of life, Vatsyayana follows the usual dictum: in childhood the pursuit of knowledge leading to the acquisition of wealth; in youth the pursuit of love and in old age *dharma* and final emancipation. For the fulfilment of the amorous desires of youth, money was a necessity. Vatsyayana advises people to earn money by all rightful means. Acquisition of knowledge, of fields for agriculture, of gold, cattle, grain and household effects such as utensils, furniture etc., of friends, and in addition to this the increase of capital through investments constituted wealth. *Kama* has been divided into two categories—*samanya* and *vishesha*. The *samanya* is born of sympathetic feeling and understanding, and the *vishesha* type, where sensory organs are concerned, consists of sexual embraces, kissing and other forms of love-making.

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But in spite of the high place which *Kama* occupied in the Hindu scheme of life, the elaborate directions given in the *Kamasutra* for its fulfilment were clearly out of bounds for the ordinary people and it became the privilege of a select body of citizens (*nagarakas*) who were rich enough to indulge in the luxuries afforded by arts and in the pleasures of sex. Naturally, for courtesans the arts of love were purely for money-making purposes. It is asserted that they even forced a Brahman in love to part with his money. But the art of love had to be taught. Courtesans and prostitutes, the high priestesses of the temple of love, and also young girls of respectable families, received training in the art of love from experienced nurses, confidantes, old maids, nuns and even maternal aunts of their own age *Angavidyas* describe the virtues which had to be cultivated and the behaviour of the body under the stress and strain of love They are named and grouped by Yashodhara, the commentator of the Kamasutra as follows

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Twenty-four arts based on profession vocal music, instrumental music, dancing, proficiency in scripts, sympathetic speech, painting, stucco work (*pustakarma*), cutting stencils from leaves (*pattrachchhedyam*), garland making, flavouring according to *gandhayukti*, testing of precious stones, sewing (*sıvanam*), knowledge of colours (*rangaparıjnanam*), furniture making (*upakarmakriya*), weight and measure (*manavidhih*), earning one’s livelihood, treatment of anımals, knowledge of false religious practices, skill in sports and amusements, knowledge of the people (*lokajnanam*), skilfulness, shampooing, toilet (*sarira samskara*), and specialized skills.

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Twenty kinds of art based on speculation of which fifteen are *nirjiva*, namely: attainment of longevity, proper use of dice, knowledge of coins and figures, investigation of certain processes, knowledge of primary causes, diplomacy, the scribe’s receipt (*karanadana*), simple and devious processes (*chitrachchitavidhih*), secret treasure (*gudharashih*), equality in contest (*tulyabhihara*), quick understanding, remembering the contents of a letter received a long time ago, the path of fire, mesmerism (*chhalvyamohanam*) and difference between the collection and deposit (*grahadana*).

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The *sajiva* speculations number five: the arts of gain, access, noise, the past and dramatic dancing.

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There are sixteen appurtenances of the bedroom: gauging the feelings of the lover, expression of one’s love, offering the limbs in embrace, application of nail scratches and biting in dalliance, untying the *sārī* knot before sexual union, touching and patting the sex organs, the show of magnanimity, the art of thrilling with joy or desire, mutual understanding and satiation, encouragement, show of mild anger, sudden withdrawal of anger, appeasing the angry lover, leaving the sleeping lover, simulating a long sleep and the art of hiding the sexual organs of the body.

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There are four arts that can be practised after the sexual union is over: weeping and cursing the lover, taking an oath in his name, following the lover who is ready to leave, looking again and again at the lover.

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As a matter of fact in these sixty-four arts only the first list, that includes music and dancing, painting and sculpture, making of garlands, cutting of stencils, preparing articles of toilet etc., comes within the category of arts. The twenty other arts are merely arts of speculation, which show the highly intelligent nature of the heroine. The final list of twenty arts merely enumerates the way the heroine acts in the presence of her lover in the bedroom in order to retain his love.

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The regular list of the sixty-four arts given by Vatsyayana is of significance for it includes broadly speaking all the items which could claim inclusion within the term *art*. The acquisition of these arts by men and women of culture was considered highly desirable. Naturally it was impossible to acquire even a partial knowledge of all these arts even though their acquisition was considered the highest goal in a cultured society. Ordinary men and women engrossed in the drudgery of everyday life could hardly be expected to gain even a passing acquaintance with these highly specialized arts whose acquisition required time, money and a certain social status. But as these arts were supposed to be the props of Indian culture, their cultivation was entrusted to a body of men and women who were by nature and circumstances placed in a position which gave them ample time to study them.

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Naturally the exacting profession of a courtesan demanded the knowledge of certain arts They had to acquire them in order to keep themselves in trim; these arts were matter-of-fact instruments of their profession There are numerous references to the fact that senior government officers, rich merchants and bankers regularly visited courtesans not only for the satisfaction of their sex impulses but to enjoy their cultured and pleasant company, since this was denied to them at home. Instruction in some of the arts mentioned by Vatsyayana also formed a part of the liberal education of princes and princesses, merchants and bankers, but their intensive cultivation was left to *goshthikas* and courtesans. The attempt of the Jains to swell the number of these arts to seventy-two was in keeping with the mediaeval tendency towards senseless exaggeration.

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The *kalas* mentioned by Vatsyayana are as follows:

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*Gitam* (vocal music): The commentary classifies it into four classes depending on notes (*svaraga*), on the composition (*padaga*), on proper tuning (*layaga*) and on emotion (*chetovardhanaga*).

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*Vadyam*: The whole range of musical instruments has been divided into four classes: metallic instruments of percussion (*ghana*), stringed instruments such as the lute (*vitata*), *tata* (any musical instrument), and wind instruments (*sushira*).

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*Nrityam*: The art of dancing consists of postures (*karanani*), gestures (*angaharani*), emotions (*bhava*), causes of emotions (*vibhava*), external signs of the effects of emotions (*anubhava*), and finally aesthetic satisfaction (*rasa*). *Nritya* is further divided into *natya* and *anatya* forms. *Natya* is defined as an imitation of the actions of the denizens of heaven, the nether world and the earth. On the other hand the *anatya* form is not enforced by tradition but depends on the whims of a dancer.

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*Alekhyam*: Yashodhara describes the six basic principles underlying the composition of a good painting: forms (*rupabhedah*), proper measurements (*pramanani*), emotions (*bhava*), integrating the concept of beauty (*lavanyayojanam*), realism (*sadrishyam*) and proper application of colours (*varnikabhanga*). These constituents of a good painting were framed to attract and instruct them or even to divert oneself.

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*Visheshakachchhedyam*: It is defined as a *tilaka* on the forehead obtained in several patterns by stencilling the birch bark, and other leaves. Such patterns come within the category of *pattrachchhedyam* and were favoured by courtesans.

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*Tandula-kusumavalivikarah* : According to the commentary multi-coloured grains of rice were used to draw up patterns on the mosaic floors of the temples of Sarasvati and Kama. Similarly, flowers of different colours were wreathed artistically during the worship of Siva and other gods. Both the art forms still flourish though in a decadent state.

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*Pushpastarana* (Flower-bed) · Multi-coloured flowers were wreathed with a needle or woven and spread in a temple or audience hall. It is the same as the *phul-sej* of today in which the bed in the bridal chamber is covered with a net of flowers.

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*Dashanavasanangaragah* : This item includes the application of saffron paste and other fragrant materials to the body and the clothes, staining the teeth etc. These practices favoured by the courtesans still survive in *aipan* (*alimpana*) and *missi* (black dented stain) used sometimes by old-fashioned women.

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*Manibhumika-karma* The art of making mosaic floors in summer. On such a cool floor people could either sleep comfortably or enjoy their drinks.

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*Sayana-rachanam* · The art of making a bed so as to indicate the state of mind of a woman, whether she was in love, angry or indifferent.

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*Udaka-vadyam* : Playing with water after the manner of a drum. It seems to have been some kind of musical instrument; something like the *jalataranga* (a set of attuned porcelain cups which are filled with water and on which music is produced by striking them with a stick in either hand).

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*Udakaghatah* : In watersport even today, water is released with a certain force by pressing the palms together and these sprays are used in striking one another in play.

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*Chitraschayogah* : The term includes all kinds of wonder-working formulas such as removing bodily defects, dyeing the hair, and magical practices to subdue one's rivals.

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*Malyagrathanavikalpah*: It teaches how to wreath flowers as offerings to the gods or for decorating one's own person.

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*Shekharakapidayojanam*: *Shekharaka* and *apida* are two types of chaplets. In the former, the chapter covered the head while in the latter multi-coloured flowers were wreathed into a circular pith-frame which was then worn on the head.

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*Nepathyaprayogah*: This is the artistic mode of wearing one's garlands and ornaments according to the prevailing fashions and the customs of the land.

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*Karnapatrabhangah*: Earrings were the favourite ornaments of the womenfolk The *karnapatrabhangah* type of earrings, according to the commentary, were made of conchshells or ivory. In the Gupta period such earrings are frequently mentioned in literature.

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*Gandhayuktih* According to Yashodhara it means the preparation of perfumes according to well tried out recipes, but the *Gandhayukti* seems to have been a book on perfumery which is unfortunately lost.

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*Bhushanayojanam*: The inborn love of the Indians for ornaments, the making and wearing of which were given the status of an art According to the commentary the ornaments are of two types, namely, *samyojya* and *asamyojya*. The *samyojya* type was set with precious stones, pearls, coral etc., while the *asamyojya* type included plain bracelets, earrings etc.

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*Aindrajalah* (illusionists). Formulae which, by conjuring up armies, temples, etc., destroyed egoistic tendencies.

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*Kauchumaraschayogah*: This contains formulae for certain love potions and medicines compiled by one Kuchumara.

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*Hastalaghavam* (deftness of hands): It meant the sleight of hand in gambling, show of skill or the creation of a sense of wonder.

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*Vichitrashakayushabhakshyavikarakriya*: This means the preparation of delectable vegetable dishes, soups and other eatables. Apparently proficiency in cooking received due recognition in the ensemble of arts and crafts.

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*Panakarasaragasavayojanam*: In an atmosphere of luxury and sensuousness, the preparation of all kinds of foods and drinks was regarded as an accomplishment. Food is divided into four categories. *Bhojya* is the cooking of rice dishes, sweets and savouries. As the cooking of sweets is a difficult matter, the cooking of vegetable dishes which is easier, is given precedence over the preparation of more intricate dishes. Among vegetables are included roots, leaves, sprouts, tender shoots, fruits, stalks, barks, flowers and even thorny vegetables. *Peya* has been divided into two classes: one in which fire was used (*agninishpadya*) such as meat and lentil soup, and one in which fire was not used. In *sandhanakrit*, a sub-variety of this type, *guda* was fermented in water; in another type yeast or some herb was used to secure the fermentation and this wine was also known as *rasa*. In making *asava* the quantity of yeast varied with the soft, middle and strong quality of the concoction. The *raga* apparently made of intoxicants was in the form of paste, powder and liquid, and was saltish or acrid, and slightly sweet in taste.

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*Suchivanakarmani*: Apparently the techniques of sewing and weaving are intended here. The *suchivana* is divided into three processes, namely, swing (*sivanam*), darning (*utanam*) and stitching (*virachanam*). The first was used in making shirts (*kanchuka*) etc., the second in mending torn clothes and the third in quilting.

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*Sutrakrida*: Multi-coloured thread was pased through a tube but it changed colours when it was taken out. In another variation of the trick the thread was cut to pieces and burnt but with a sleight of hand the ashes were converted again into whole thread.

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*Vina-damarukavadyani*: Proficiency in playing on the lute and *damaru* (a hand drum).

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*Prahelika*: Riddles for amusement and discussion.

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*Pratimala*: In this amusing competition one of the competitors recited a verse. Taking its last letter as a clue, a competitor from the rival party recited another verse beginning with the same letter, and this went on for a long time till one of the parties was defeated. *Pratimala* is still continued in the form of *antakshari*.

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*Durvachakayogah*: Tongue-twisters and verses whose meanings were almost incomprehensible.

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*Pustakavachanam:* Literally, stylistic recitals from books. According to the commentary, however, it refers to the reading of Bharata's *Natyashastra* and *Kavyas* with a view to evoking erotic sentiments or simply as a source of amusement. As the arts mentioned by the *Kamasutra* were cultivated mostly by the courtesans and their lovers, the latter explanation is more acceptable.

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*Natakakhyayikavarnanam:* Discussion on dramatic compositions and stories.

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*Kavyasamasyapuranam:* A form of literary amusement in which an unfinished verse had to be completed. In its modern form only some words from the end of a verse are given, and the competitors are expected to complete it.

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*Pattika-vetra-vana-vikalpah* Weaving a mat or bed with cane was supposed to be an artistic accomplishment, and it is still considered so in some parts of the country.

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*Tarku-karmani:* It is, apparently, spinning (*tarku* i.e. spindle) and the various processes involved in it, though according to the commentary the various processes involved in calendering (*kundakarmani*) are meant here

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*Takshanam:* Carpentry, which involved the making of artistic beds and furniture.

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*Vastuvidya:* The science of architecture. Apparently in the early centuries of the Christian era the science of architecture was recognized as an independent branch of knowledge.

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*Rupya-ratna-pariksha:* Scientific examination of coins such as *dinars*, precious stones, etc., according to their qualities, defects, values etc.

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*Dhatuvadah:* *Dhatuvada* usually stands for alchemy, but according to the commentary, it stands for mining and metallurgy. It includes the knowledge of pulverizing, smelting and mixing the earth, stones and boulders for getting pure metals.

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*Manirakarajnanam:* It included the knowledge of the colouring of crystals of semi-precious stones for making ornaments and the knowledge of ruby mines etc.

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*Vrikshayurvedam:* Arboriculture which includes the planting of trees for medicinal purposes and also ornamental trees for house gardens.

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*Meshakukkutalavakayuddhavidhih* : Knowledge of ram, cock and partridge fighting.

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Animal fights were popular among the people and favoured by the royal court. Aelian writing in the second century A.D. observes: "The great King of the Indians appoints a day every year for fighting between men, as I have mentioned elsewhere, and also even between brute animals that are horned. These butt each other, and with a natural ferocity that excites astonishment, strive for victory, just like athletes straining every nerve, whether for the highest prize or for proud distinction, or for fair renown. Now these combatants are brute animals—wild bulls, tame rams, those called *mesoi*, unicorn asses, and hyaenas, an animal said to be smaller than the antelope, much bolder than the stag, and to butt furiously with its horns. Before the close of the spectacle, elephants come forward to fight, and with their tusks inflict death-wounds on each other. One not unfrequently proves the stronger, and it not unfrequently happens that both are killed."

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Aelian has also left some interesting information about chariot racing, a very ancient sport of the Indians. "The Indians make much ado also about the oxen that run fast; and both the king himself and many of the greatest nobles take contending views of their swiftness and make bets in gold and silver, and think it no disgrace to stake their money on these animals. They yoke them in chariots, and incur hazard on the chance of victory. The horses that are yoked to the car run in the middle with an ox on each side, and one of these wheels sharp round the turning-post and must run thirty stadia. The oxen run at a pace equal to that of the horses, and you could not decide which was the fleeter, the ox or the horse. And if the king has laid a wager on his own oxen with anyone, he becomes so excited over the contest that he follows in his chariot to instigate the driver to speed faster. The driver again pricks the horses with the goad till the blood streams, but he keeps his hand off the oxen, for they run without needing the goad. And to such a pitch does the emulation in the match between the oxen rise, that not only do the rich and the owners of the oxen lay heavy bets upon them, but even the spectators."

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*Shukasarıkapralapa:* Teaching human speech to parrots and mynas; this was a common form of amusement in ancient India Aelian, writing about parrots says "There are, I am told, three kinds of them. All of them, however, if taught like children, become like them able to talk and utter words of human speech."

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*Utsadane samvahane keshamardane cha kaushalm:* Dexterity in massaging, shampooing and applying oil to the hair. According to the commentary in *utsadana* feet were employed, and in the hair massage the hands. *Samavahana* is a general term for shampooing other parts of the body.

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*Aksharamushtika* or cipher language: This is divided into two classes, visible (*sabhasa*) and invisible (*nirabhasa*) The first was also known as *aksharamudra*. It was used in conveying secret messages *Nirabhasa*, also known as *bhutamudra*, was a sort of sign language through which different mudras conveyed their own meanings and it was used in secret counsel

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*Mlechchhitavikalpah* It was also a code language in which the transposition of letters in a simple word made it difficult for the listener to find out the true word

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*Deshabhashavijnanam:* The knowledge of the vernaculars. The commentary explains that regional languages were used to express some secret message or desire

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*Pushpashakatika* (flower cart): It was made of flowers; like the *phulmandalis* of recent days in which wooden frames are used to obtain the shapes of houses, carriages, animals and birds profusely decorated with flowers.

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*Nimittajnanam:* The art of prognostication which was held in great esteem in ancient India and played a decisive role in moulding the ways of life.

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*Yantramatrika:* This art included formulae from some treatise of Visvakarma for constructing war-machines, sea-going vessels and Persian wheels, etc.

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*Dharanamatrika:* The art of committing to memory related facts and figures pertaining to articles, treasures, wealth, symbols and causes.

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*Sampathyam* The term connotes congregational recitation either for amusement or dispute. In such a gathering one of the members of the party read from a prescribed book and a second followed him though he had not heard him before.

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*Manasi-avyakriya* (thoughtful expression)· It is divided into two classes, visible and invisible. In the first category come meaningless couplets full of consonants composed in the padmabandha style As opposed to this, in the second category the opposite party after hearing wrong verses corrected them and recited them again These arts were for amusement or disputation.

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*Abhidhanakosha*: Knowledge of the lexicons and synonyms.

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*Chhandojnanam*· A good knowledge of prosody was considered necessary for a poet.

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*Kriyakalpa*: Knowledge of the conventions of writing poetry.

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*Chhalitaka-yogah*: It is described as disguises to dupe others.

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*Vastragopanam*: The art of covering the unexposed part of the body so that the cover is not easily blown by the wind; to wear a torn garment in such a way that it looks whole; to hide the defects of oversized garments by tightening the knots.

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*Dyutavisheshah*: A sort of gambling such as speculation about the nature and the number of articles held in a closed fist etc.

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*Akarshakrida*· Playing at dice was supposed to be a specialized kind of gambling which required a deft hand.

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*Balakridanakani*: Knowledge of the manufacture of all kinds of toys for boys such as toy-houses, balls, dolls etc.

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*Vainayiki*: The art of self-discipline and controlling others; it also included the training of elephants.

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*Vaijayiki*: Knowledge of the art of warfare, weapons, etc., to ensure one's own victory.

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*Vyayamiki*: It included the knowledge of all kinds of physical exercises including hunting etc.

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The knowledge of the arts enumerated above naturally added much to the fame of a cultured person, though it is problematic whether a person, howsoever resourceful he might have been, could acquire even a part of this vast store of different arts. However, some of these arts served as a kind of stock-in-trade of the courtesan. In the words of Vatsyayana:

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The courtesan (veshya), her fame enhanced by the acquisition of these arts imbued with politeness, beauty and virtues, gained for the word *ganika* an honourable mention in the assembly of the people. For ever honoured by the king, praised by the connoisseurs of arts her company much sought after, she became the focus of attention of all.

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These arts were not confined to courtesans alone, but they formed an integral part of a liberal education. Thus it is said that a musician, a princess or a daughter of a minister could, with the knowledge of these arts, control her husband in spite of hundreds of rivals in the harem Even if a woman was separated from her husband, even if he died or proceeded on a long journey outside the country, if she was accomplished in these arts, she could spend her days in comfort. A man well-versed in the arts, a good conversationalist and one proficient in the art of flattery could easily win the favours of a woman even if he did not know her. According to Vatsyayana the knowledge of arts and crafts meant the dawn of good fortune but their practice depended upon the factors of time and place.

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In Part I, Chapter 4 of the *Kamasutra*, Vatsyayana throws considerable light on the *goshthi* and its members who were known in ancient India as *nagarakas*. The members of *goshthi* were not mere voluptuaries but were also men of refinement and good taste. Everybody could not aspire to lead the life of a *nagaraka* as such a life required certain attainments which had to be cultivated. Vatsyayana is of the opinion that the life of a *nagaraka* should be adopted after receiving a liberal education. Before joining the fraternity of the *nagarakas*, if he was a Brahman, he was expected to acquire sufficient wealth by receiving gifts. If he was a Kshatriya he could accumulate wealth by the prowess of his arms. If he was a Vaishya, trade and commerce added to his resources. If he was a Shudra, practising of crafts brought him money. Of course a legacy from the paternal or maternal side was also a welcome addition. Another condition imposed upon one who intended to adopt a *nagaraka's* life was that he should have enjoyed family life for some time, perhaps to give himself an idea of its limitations and the unbounded joy of the life of a voluptuary.

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A person who aspired to live like a *nagaraka* at first established himself as a gentleman in a city, in a business centre or in a small town. His activities could also be carried on while he was on tour. The house in which a *nagaraka* lived was situated in the vicinity of a river or a tank to ensure cleanliness and the possibilities of watersport. Adjoining the river or the tank there was a garden and a workshop. The living house itself was divided into two apartments, an outer and an inner one: the former serving as a sitting room and the latter occupied by women. The outer room was provided with a bed furnished with soft perfumed mattresses, pillows near the head and at the feet, and a clean white counterpane. Nearby was laid a smaller bed which came in handy during love play. At the head of the bed lay a broom which was considered an auspicious symbol. Built against the wall and reaching to the height of the bed was a platform on which were placed the unguents, the garlands, a beeswax box, a packet of perfumed powder for removing the odour of perspiration, lemon peelings and betel leaves for perfuming the mouth; on the floor lay a spitoon. From the peg hung a covered *vina* on which he played, a wooden panel on which he painted and a box of painting brushes, the palm-leaf manuscript of his favourite poem and a *kurantaka* garland which did not fade. Not far from the bed was spread a round carpet. The gambling board rested against the wall. Outside the living apartments and in the covered veranda were hung the cages of birds. In an obscure corner the *nagaraka* could busy himself with spinning and carpentry which apparently contributed to creative joy. In the garden there was a swing under shady trees and a mosaic platform covered with flowers; this could be used as a drinking booth.

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This completes the pen picture of the residence of the *nagaraka*. It was simply decorated and was provided with all the necessities of his vocation. The flower garden and the river, the swing and the drinking booth naturally gave the place a feeling of opulence and provided an appropriate background for the drama of love.

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Vatsyayana also gives interesting details about the daily routine of the *nagaraka*. He got up early in the morning, washed, brushed his teeth with a twig, had his bath and finally performed his religious rites. After applying perfumes lightly to his body and fumigating himself with *agara* wood etc., he put a garland on his topknot, and applied lacdye to his lips, fixing it with wax. Then he looked at his face in the mirror and after eating betel leaves and perfumed pills started on his daily round of work.

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In order to keep himself fit and to ensure physical well-being the *nagaraka* never missed his bath. To keep the blood circulating freely and to harden the muscles, his body was shampooed on every alternate day and every third day he had his body massaged with wooden rollers (*phenaka*). He was not very particular about shaving, and shaved every fourth day, with the firm belief that this contributed to longevity. His head was shaved on every fifth day and the superfluous hair was pulled out on every tenth day. In order to avoid perspiring profusely in the armpits, he left them uncovered.

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Bearing in mind the strains to which his body was subjected, the *nagaraka* had to be very careful about his diet and he followed the *shastric* injunctions which laid down that meals were to be eaten in the forenoon and at sunset. Vatsyayana, however, quotes another opinion on the subject. According to Charayana the night meal was preferable. After the forenoon meal the *nagaraka* lazed about, enjoying the prattling of his pet parrot and myna or he witnessed the fights of partridges, cocks and rams and spent his time settling the affairs of the *pithamarda*, the rake and the buffoon, who were apparently his boon companions. And then he enjoyed his midday siesta.

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The evening was a very important part of the day for the *nagaraka* as it was after nightfall that he could give full vent to his artistic proclivities and amatory ventures. In the afternoon all the routine business ceased and the *nagaraka* joined the deliberations of the *goshthi* or the assembly of the *nagarakas* who were well-versed in the arts. In the musical soiree that followed, a programme of vocal and instrumental music and dancing (*sangitaka*) was arranged, and after this was over, the outer apartment was thoroughly swept and the floor strewn with flowers. Incense smoke filled the room and the bed was made in order to receive visitors The *nagaraka* waited with his companions to meet the *abhisarika* at the appointed time and despatched a female go-between to bring her to him. In case this approach did not succeed, he proceeded to his lady love in person. In order to prove his concern for her the *nagaraka* arranged for the girl whose clothes had been splashed in the rain to change them and to set her coiffure right again; at times his friend deputized for him. The servants fanned them and performed other duties.

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In addition to this daily routine the *nagaraka* was expected to participate in the following functions and festivals.

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*Ghatanibandhanam* : The commentary defines *ghata* as a festival held in honour of the gods, and it is further added that its administration was organized on the lines of *gana*; this is supported by the *Nishitha Churni*.

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*Goshthivihara* : *Goshthi* was the assembly of the *nagarakas* who discussed there the problems of arts and poetry. Such a meeting, the *goshthivihara*, was a specialized *goshthi* different from the daily *goshthi* held for mere entertainment.

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*Samapanakam* : Drinking in the company of friends and courtesans was one of the most important aspects of the social life of the *nagarakas*. In the *samapanaka* function after the members of the *goshthi* had assembled, there was a great deal of revelry. Besides such functions the *nagaraka* enjoyed his drinks daily in the company of his beloved.

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*Udyanagamanam*: The nagaraka enjoyed garden picnics, which were in addition to his routine visits to his own garden house.

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*Samasyah*: In *samasya* the nagarakas assembled to enjoy sports and amusements. This entertainment is divided into two categories *mahimanya* or distinguished, and *deshya* or the folk type.

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The *Kamasutra* and its commentary *Jayamangala* give further information about the feasts and festivals with which the nagarakas were closely associated.

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For instance, *ghata* was arranged every fortnight or every month or on a well-known festival day in the temple of Sarasvati, the patron goddess of learning and of all the arts. The commentary says it was held on the Vasanta Panchami day. On this festival day the *niyuktas* (who are defined as those nagarakas and dancers who were appointed by the nayaka to dance in the temple and worship the goddess every month or every fortnight) participated in the festival. Because of their profession or the vow they had undertaken, the professionals and amateurs met together and joined by the nagarakas, they all became members of the *samaja* which was also visited by dancers and actors hailing from distant places. They were invited to perform on important festival days or other days. The *niyuktas* or persons appointed for specific performances, however, preferred to perform on festival days alone for they received a stipulated fees then.

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There seems to have been other kinds of dancers employed by the temple, who, in spite of their indifferent performance, carried on with the routine drudgery of this work. The visiting performers received gifts on the second day, because as pointed out by the commentary, on the first day the people were too busy with the performance and on the third day their pockets tended to be empty. The *niyuktas* and *pujopacharakas* received their ordinary emoluments but the visiting performers received the fees already fixed for the occasion. Even in the rush and confusion of the first day's performance they received garments as gifts from the nagarakas for their fine performance of the stage. In the end if the audience so desired, then the performance was repeated. Otherwise the party was dismissed with sweet words. There was perfect accord between the visiting performers and those in the temple service. If anyone from the visiting party fell ill, or if a calamity befell him, or if he was otherwise engaged attending a marriage party or a festival, a *niyukta* at once deputized for him and came to the help of the performers. The visiting party also did a similar good turn if a *niyukta* found himself in a similar position.

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Certain standards of social etiquette were also expected from those who were appointed to the position of *nagarakas*. It was their duty to honour those who came to the *ghata* with gifts, flowers, scents and unguents. Making the acquaintance of those who were not *nagarakas* was considered to be an advantage. The relationship between the visitors, the performers and the *nagarakas* participating in the *ghata* was governed by the *gana* rules. Apparently these rules were the same as those followed by the *ganas* in the conduct of meetings. On the lines of the institution of *ghata* in the temple of Sarasvati, similar *ghatas* were organized in honour of other gods, bearing in mind the situation, the time and the country.

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It was, however, in the periodical meetings of the *goshthi* that the *nagarakas* found full satisfaction for their proclivities and amatory experiences. The *goshthi* met in the house of a courtesan, in the pavilion of a gambling house or in the house of one of the *nagarakas*. It was attended by the *nagarakas* who shared the same level of education, intelligence, social standing, wealth and age. They were naturally accompanied by the courtesans in their company and they discussed topics befitting the occasion. In such a *goshthi* the *nagarakas* occupied the seats assigned to them (*asanabandha*), the order of the seats depending on the merits and attainments of the members. The gathering discussed the problems of literature which included composing verses on a fixed topic, and also the problems of art which included the theory of dancing as propounded by Bharata. At the close of the discussion, in order to foster friendship, the members exchanged gifts in honour of the artistic attainments of the members; the function was called *kalapuja*. The gifts brought in by servants were artistic and suggestive of the love and esteem felt by the members for each other and included garments etc.

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Drinking formed a part of the *goshthi* and no pains were spared to make drinking parties a success. To enjoy their drinks in exciting company, the *nagarakas* met at each other’s home every fortnight, every month, or on festival days, and courtesans naturally formed an essential part of such gatherings. They themselves drank and served others drinks such as *madhu*, maireya and *asava* accompanied by fruits, green vegetables and other savouries.

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*Udyanayanam* or a picnic naturally included the enjoyment of outdoor life. Drinking and other pleasures were important features of the *nagaraka’s* life. To proceed to a garden party in the afternoon the *nagarakas* put on new garments and jewelry befitting the occasion. Then mounting their horses, followed and preceded by attendants and accompanied by courtesans they proceeded to the garden where they passed the whole day joyfully staking large sums of money in cock-fights. There was music and dancing and love play. In the afternoon they were fully satiated and later, bearing the signs of dalliance on their bodies, they returned to their respective homes.

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In the same way the *nagarakas* enjoyed water-sports in tanks in the summer months.

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The *nagarakas* also participated in festivals both traditional and of a folk variety.

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*Yaksharatrih*: The modern Diwali or the festival of lights, which in ancient times (as its name indicates) was held in honour of Yakshas. On that day people usually gambled.

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*Kaumudijagara*: The festival was held on the full-moon day of the month of Kartika. In this festival gambling and swinging were two main forms of amusement. It was a favourite festival of the people in the Gupta period.

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*Suvasantaka*: It was also known as *Kamotsava*. Music, dancing and merry-making were special features of the festival.

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There were also a large number of games and amusements of a folk variety in which the *nagarakas* participated.

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*Abhyushakhadika* In this form of amusement green grams etc., were roasted and eaten. Even now it is a common form of amusement in many parts of India.

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*Sahakarabhanjika*: In this sport mango fruits were picked from trees and eaten. This took place in summer.

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*Bisakhadika*: Lotus roots (apparently roasted) were eaten by the participants of this game.

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*Navapatrika*: After the first rains the trees were clothed with new leaves, and then people, particularly those living near the forest, made it an occasion for rejoicing and merry-making

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*Udakakshvedika*. According to the commentary this form of amusement was a favourite with the people of Madhyadesha. Water syringes were used to drench one another and it was somewhat like the modern Holi.

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*Panchalanuyanam*: Apparently a game where mimicry was a special feature. The commentary observes that it was a favourite form of amusement in Mithila

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*Ekashalmali* In Vidarbha people assembled under a huge flowering silk-cotton tree and amused themselves by making flower ornaments.

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*Yavachaturthi*. It was a favourite festival in Western India. It was held on the fourth day of the bright half of the month of Vaishakha when the *nagarakas* threw perfumed barley powder on each other.

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*Alolachaturthi*: Swinging is a popular form of amusement On the third day of the bright half of the month of Shravana, this game is played and even now women participate eagerly in it.

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*Madanotsava* The worship of Kama's image. The *Matsya Purana*, Ch. 70 gives a detailed description of Kama-worship.

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*Damanabhanjika*: In this form of entertainment people decorated one another with the crest ornaments made of damanaka flowers.

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*Holaka* or the famous Holi festival is celebrated on the full moon day of the month of Phalguna when people spray each other with coloured water obtained by boiling *palasha* flowers.

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*Ashokottamshika*: On this festival day the flowers of the *Ashoka* were picked up and head crests made out of them.

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*Pushpavachayika*: A large number of women used to be engaged in this pastime of picking up flowers. The *pushplavis* have been referred to in the *Meghaduta*, I. 26.

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*Chutalatika*: In this game the participants amused themselves by making crest ornaments of lotus flowers.

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*Ikshubhanjikah*: This game entailed decorating oneself with small pieces of sugarcane.

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*Kadambayuddha*: Here the participants divided themselves into two groups and pelted one another with *kadamba* flowers.

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The pastimes mentioned above could be enjoyed by the *nagaraka* in the company of a single courtesan or a group of courtesans, accompanied by their attendants and their mothers. All this depended on his financial resources. It is evident from the *Kamasutra* that the *nagarakas* were proficient in the arts and their financial resources enabled them to lead a life of luxury. They came to occupy an important place in the social and cultural life of the city. But there were less important people called *upa-nagarakas*, who also tried to imitate the *nagarakas* and their way of life, and were unable to keep up the show because of financial and other limitations.

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*Pithamarda* (a friend of the *nagaraka*) was so poor that he could hardly play the role of the *nagaraka*. He was lonely and childless and roamed from one place to another in search of some means of livelihood. He carried a crook (*mallikasana*) on his back to serve him as a seat, a wood roller (*phenaka*), unguent for shampooing his thighs, and made it a point to approach the rich and receive money from them. His strong point, however, was his ready wit, and relying on his advice, his *nagaraka* friends acquitted themselves very well in the *goshthis* and in matters relating to courtesans.

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The *vita* was another companion of the *nagaraka*. He was noted for his knowledge of the arts, his wit and camaraderie. Apparently the *vita* was born in a rich household but had lost his fortune by adopting the life of a *nagaraka*.

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Though the memory of his past life hardly mattered, he was strongly attracted to the fair sex. He managed to hold his own in the *goshthis* and *vesha* and the source of his livelihood were *goshthis* and courtesans. A *vidushaka* or *vaihasika* was not merely a jester or a buffoon but a skilled musician, a playful and pleasant character and above all a trustworthy fellow. The characters mentioned above served as counsellors to the *nagaraka* and acted as advisers during the quarrels and the reconciliation which he frequently had with the courtesans. The *nagaraka* in his love intrigues sought the help of Buddhist nuns (*bhikhshuki*), widow (*munda*), strumpets (*vrishali*) and old courtesans who were all adept in the arts.

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The institution of *nagarakas* and *goshthis*, though predominantly an urban institution, exercised a certain influence in the rural areas as well. As a first step the *nagaraka* living in a village encouraged the cleverer and keener members of his own caste to join the institution, recounted to them the charms of a *nagaraka's* life and thus gained their confidence and respect. To strengthen the newly founded institution, the leader arranged meetings of the *goshthi*, took their help in arranging feasts and outdoor picnics and encouraged them to help one another.

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The *Kamasutra* also gives some important directions for the proper conduct of the meetings of the *goshthi*. It is ordained that a proper balance must be maintained between the languages used in the *goshthis*—Sanskrit and Prakrits were given equal preference in the discussions on literary topics. In the opinion of Vatsyayana the functions of a *goshthi* were literary and conducive to joy and any deviation from its avowed aims was considered to be boorish. A *goshthi* which was hated by the people or one that was indisciplined or one that cheated others was to be strictly avoided. On the other hand, Vatsyayana advises people to join a *goshthi* which pleased the people and which concentrated on amusements alone.

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Although the association with courtesans was condemned by the *sastras*, Vatsyayana states that society attached little stigma to it. A *veshya* was recognized as a kind of *nayika* or heroine. According to one of the early authorities Ghotakamukha, a separate Chapter was composed on the daughters of courtesans and unmarried maid-servants, though Vatsyayana includes them all in the *veshya* class.

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The *nayaka* was the pivot round which the wheel of the *goshthi* moved. He was, however, expected to observe a certain propriety in his sex relations. For instance, union with the following was totally forbidden: with a leper, a maniac, with a morally depraved person, a divulger of secrets, a flirt, a middle aged person, a very dark or a very fair or a foul smelling woman, a near relative, a friend, with the wife of a friend or of a Brahman or with a queen. Of course to gain his heart's desires the *nayaka* or *nagaraka* had to depend on his friends including childhood friends, school fellows, and he had often to seek the help of a nurse. True friendship was based on instinct and depended upon a congenial temperament, respect for truth, obedience, constancy, open-heartedness, firmness and respect for the secrets of friends.

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The friends of a *nagaraka* included such curious people as barbers, washermen, perfumers, florists, wine merchants, mendicants, cowherds, betel-leaf sellers, *pithamarda*, *vita*, jesters and their wives. These low characters naturally rendered him all kinds of service, carrying messages to the women of his choice. Messengers and go-betweens played an important part in the love affairs of the *nagaraka*, and they were clever, audacious, masters of sign languages, trustworthy and alert.

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The *Kamasutra* describes in detail the different kinds of kisses, embraces, nail-scratchings, cooing etc., which was all a part of the paraphernalia of love-making. These arts were mastered by the *nagarakas*. Vatsyayana has given us a vivid picture of the beginning and the end of love-making. The *nagaraka* with his friends and attendants exchanged floral gifts and entered the well adorned bedroom that was purfumed with incense. There he met his beloved who had just bathed and finished her toilet. She was slightly intoxicated. At first he talked to her sweetly about her welfare and then encouraged her to have more drinks. He made her sit on his right and caressed her with the left hand. He touched her hair locks, the hem of her garments, and the knot of her *sari* with his right hand, and the left hand was absorbed in caressing her. He reminded her of their previous dalliance and spoke suggestively to her of love. To enflame their love desires musical performances with or without dancing were arranged and the various arts were discussed, and she was encouraged to accept more drinks. When she was fully prepared for the act of love the others who were present were given flowers, unguents and *pan* and dismissed, and the lovers then embraced each other and the dalliance began.

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Linked texts (7)

Kāmasūtra — Vātsyāyana Mallanāga, Sanskrit
Matsyapurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Nāṭyaśāstra — Bharata, Sanskrit
Meghadūta — Kālidāsa, Sanskrit
Purāṇa — Sanskrit
Aṃgavijjā — Māhārāṣṭrī Prakrit
Jayamaṅgalā — Śaṅkara, Sanskrit