Pramāṇa · Search · About · API

Hindu Administrative Institutions c6.s3: Sec. iv. The Relation of Trivarga to Daṇḍa Nīti

Hindu Administrative Institutions c6.s3

Language
English

Sec. iv. The Relation of Trivarga to Daṇḍa Nīti

c6.s3.1

There is one other aspect of the science of daṇḍa and that is its relation to trivarga. This important aspect has received but little attention. Daṇḍa nīti has been characterized rightly, as trivarga vidyā, the science of the three ends of life.² The trivarga, namely, dharma, artha, and kāma, leaving mokṣa, out of account, constitutes the puruṣārthas of Hindu sociology, and *Rājadharma* functions towards the attainment of these *puruṣārthas*.¹

c6.s3.2

² नोते: फलं धर्मार्थकामावाप्तिः । (Br. Sūtra. ii. 43.)

c6.s3.3

¹ धर्म:प्रधानं पुरुषार्थात् । (Ār. Śās., ii. 55.)

c6.s3.4

Dharma is the most important of this *trivarga*, says the *Bārhaspatya Nītisāra*.² The realization of this *trivarga* is said to lead on to the fourth *puruṣārtha*, namely, *mokṣa*. ‘Dharma has been a word to conjure with. It has been taught in all possible and imaginable ways—by express teaching, by commands, by stories, by literature and art, in temples, on the stage, and by the living examples of saints and avatars. It implies structure and function; it has reference to a type, and it is based on discipline; it is the meeting-point of the individual and of society, of religion and philosophy, of here and hereafter, of man and God. It is the cement of society, the bond of love, the means of attainment of God.’³

c6.s3.5

² धर्मप्रधानं पुरुषार्थानां । (Bṛ. Sūtra. ii. 55 ; cp. Kāmasūtra, Bk. I, ii. 14.)

c6.s3.6

³ K. S. R. Sastri, *Hindu Culture*, p. 93.

c6.s3.7

This plant of *dharma* should be carefully nurtured for all acts grow from it. That king who, though deprived of *artha* and *kāma*, clings to *dharma*, reigns long.⁴ *Daṇḍa nīti* is like the reins of a horse, or the goad of an elephant, to men of the four *varṇas*, to keep them in the ordained path of *dharma*.

c6.s3.8

⁴ सेवा धर्मस्य कर्तव्या सततं भूरिवत्सरै: । (Śānti, lxviii. 80.) पुरुषैर्नरशार्दूल तन्मूला: सर्वथाक्रिया: । अर्थकामविहीनोऽपि चिरंपालयतेमहीं । (Ibid., 87.)

c6.s3.9

The king is said to be the maker of *kāla* or time. He makes and unmakes the four *yugas* by his actions. He must ever endeavour to create the Kṛta Yuga as against the Kali Yuga.¹ In a later chapter (91) Bhīṣma speaks of the king himself as the Yuga (*v* 6). *Daṇḍa* or well-timed and impartial justice is *dharma*, and *artha* is the root of *dharma*. The whole chapter² is devoted to the discussion of this subject of *trivarga* and its place in Indian polity. The fruits of *dharma* are said to be the attainment of divinity and of heaven; of *artha* enjoyment (*bhoga*), of *kāma* (satisfaction of the senses) and of *mokṣa*, release from the bonds of these three. There must be healthy restraints in the realization of the three ends of life in order that this life may lead to *mokṣa*.³ There must be a harmonious co-ordination of these spiritual standards. In this context Bhīṣma narrates the discourse which took place between Kāmandaka Ṛiṣi and Angariṣṭa Rāja. The king enquires of the sage: ‘If a king under the influence of anger and jealousy commit deeds of sin and repent afterwards, will he be absolved of the sin? Can a king get salvation if in ignorance he practises *adharma* as *dharma*?’ The sage replied that the king who abandoned *dharma* and *artha*, and enjoyed *kāma* in excess would ruin his powers of knowledge, and in this state wicked people would increase in numbers. He would get himself involved in all kinds of troubles.

c6.s3.10

¹ *Śānti*, lxix. 25-28.

c6.s3.11

² *Ibid.*, cxxiii.

c6.s3.12

³ Cf. *Kāmasūtra*, Bk. I, chap. ii.

c6.s3.13

कृतं त्रेता द्वापरश्च कलिञ्च भरतर्षभ ।
राजवृत्तानि सर्वाणि राजैव युगमुच्यते ॥

c6.s3.14

Hence the king should pursue the beaten track of his ancestors.

c6.s3.15

Every *parvan* of the *Mahābhārata* has something or other to say on the *trivarga*. In chap. v of the *Sabhā Parvan* Nārada is said to have asked Yudhiṣṭhira questions in words pregnant with *dharma*, *kāma* and *artha*, धर्मकामार्थसंयुक्तं (19). The first questions are interesting. ‘Are you increasing your wealth? Is your mind rooted in *dharma*? Are you enjoying happiness with a controlled mind?¹ Is *dharma* being fulfilled according to *artha*, and *artha* according to *dharma*? Are these two not being obstructed by *kāma*? Are you observing these three aims in their proper place and time?² According to the sage Vidura, *trivarga* is said to take its source from *dharma* just like the state.³ Manu says,⁴ ‘Some say that *dharma* and *artha* are of supreme importance. Some are of opinion that *artha* and *kāma* are the most important. Others say that *artha* alone is important. For it is the sole means for *dharma* and *kāma*. But my opinion is all the three are of capital importance,⁵ in that each of them is complementary to the other.’ The non-observance of *dharma* (शास्त्रविहितमनतिष्ठन् according to Kullūka Bhaṭṭa) will lead to misery. Hence though confronted by insuperable difficulties one must not cross the boundary of dharma.¹ Such standards of *artha* and *kāma* that go against the ordained principles of *dharma* must be abandoned.² Hence the king must endeavour to administer justice in accordance with the standards of *dharma*, *artha* and *kāma* by consulting his ministers either in the middle of the day or in the night.³

c6.s3.16

¹ *Mbh.*, *Sabhā Parva*, v. 20 ff.; cf. *Ayōdhya Kāṇḍa*, chap. c. 63-64; *vide* Govindrāja's commentary.

c6.s3.17

² *Ibid.*, *vs.* 20-23.

c6.s3.18

³ *Vana Parvan*, iv. 7.

c6.s3.19

⁴ धर्मार्थिवुच्यतेश्रेयः कामार्थौधर्मऽएव च। अर्थ एवेहवा श्रेयस्त्रिवर्ग इति तु स्थितिः ॥ (ii 224.)

c6.s3.20

⁵ Cf. *Ayōdhya Kāṇḍa*, chap. xxi. 59.

c6.s3.21

¹ न सोदन्नपि धर्मेण मनोऽधर्मे निवेशयेत् । अधार्मिकानां पापानां आशु पश्यन् विपर्ययं ॥ (Manu iv. 171),

c6.s3.22

² *Ibid.*, iv. 176.

c6.s3.23

³ vii. 151 ff.

c6.s3.24

Kauṭalya says समं वा त्रिवर्गमन्योन्यानुबन्धम् (I. 7). The three objects of life are intertwined with one another, and hence for the pursuit of life all these objects are equal and must be treated as such. This general statement he further qualifies. If one devotes more attention to any one of these objects to the neglect of the other two, the real object of life becomes unattainable. By this he causes trouble not only to one but also to the others (इतरौ). This is commented by Dr. Gaṇapati Śāstri thus: अर्थकामौ, धर्मकामौ, धर्मार्थौ (both *artha* and *kāma*, *dharma* and *kāma*, *dharma* and *artha*). Kauṭalya speaks of the third object of life thus: धर्मार्थऽविरोधेन कामं सेवेत । Pursue your *kāma* (desires) in such a manner that they do not come in conflict with *dharma* and *artha*. At the end of the discussion Kauṭalya cites it as his opinion that prominence should be given to *artha*. For *dharma* and *kāma* originate in *artha*. According to Vātsyāyana, to a king *artha* is more important than *dharma* and *kāma*; for it is by means of wealth that social order is maintained and the government of the land is carried on.⁴ In the *Cāṇakya Rāja Nīti Śāstra* the following occurs: By wealth alone *dharma* is fulfilled;

c6.s3.25

⁴ Bk. I. ii. 15. 16.

c6.s3.26

न सोदन्नपि धर्मेण मनोऽधर्मे निवेशयेत् ।
अधार्मिकानां पापानां आशु पश्यन् विपर्ययं ॥ (Manu iv. 171),

c6.s3.27

by wealth alone the wealthy become more prosperous; without wealth there will be no enjoyment of *kāma*; wealth alone is the source of *trivarga*.¹

c6.s3.28

¹ Cal. Orient. Series.

c6.s3.29

Śukrāchārya speaks of *Nīti Śāstra* itself as the root of the *trivarga*, leading to salvation.² He quotes the examples of Nahusha and Vena who fell into hell for transgressing established standards. Śukra regards *dharma* as the supreme, while to Kauṭalya *artha* alone is of capital importance.³ In the opinion of Kāmandaka the proper observance of the *trivarga* would only come as a result of the application of *daṇḍa*.⁴ Kāmandaka speaks of an evolution of the three objects of life proceeding in order of diminishing importance.⁵

c6.s3.30

² Chap. i. 5.

c6.s3.31

³ Chap. i. 66, 69.

c6.s3.32

⁴ Chap. ii. 38.

c6.s3.33

Śankarārya comments that *dharma* is that collected in various previous births and constantly nurtured, and out of this comes *artha*.⁶ There could be no enjoyment without *artha*.⁷ There could be no happiness without proper *kāma*. *Dveṣa* or hatred is said to be the opposite of *kāma*.⁸ The second line of the verse

c6.s3.34

⁶ जन्मान्तरोपार्जित धर्ममूलत्वात् तदुपबृंहणोयत्वाच्चार्थस्य । (Kāmandaka, i. 51 ; Trivandrum Sanskrit Series.)

c6.s3.35

⁷ निरर्थस्य विषयोपभोगासंभवात् .......... (Ibid.)

c6.s3.36

⁸ यस्तु दाण्डक्यस्येव दुःखफलोदयः सद्वेष एव, न कामः । (Ibid.)

c6.s3.37

धनादिधर्मः क्रियते धनेन
धनेन धन्या धनिनो भवन्ति ।
धनं विना कामकथैव नास्ति
त्रिवर्गमूलं धनमेव नान्यत् ॥ (iv. 21).

c6.s3.38

धर्मादर्थोऽर्थतः कामः कामात् सुखफलोदयः ।
आत्मानं हन्ति तौ हत्वा युक्त्या यो न निवर्तते ॥ (i. 51)

c6.s3.39

in which Kāmandaka uses the expression ‘युक्त्या’ advisedly is significant. In his opinion too much of anything is poisonous. Overdoing of dharma would itself ruin artha and kāma and then dharma also.¹ Too much of gifts and too much of observance of penances are not hence recommended. The same is true of the misuse of artha.² Too much indulgence in kāma and misuse of artha would destroy the real objects of life.

c6.s3.40

¹ > अतिदानेन धर्मोऽर्थहत्वाकामं धर्मान्तरं च हन्ति ।

c6.s3.41

² > तथार्थः तादात्विकोऽप्युपदीयमान ऐलस्थेव धर्मकामौ हत्वा अर्थमपि हन्ति । कामः पुनः अत्यासेव्यमानः स्त्रीमृगयाद्यूतपानैः चतुर्भिर्व्यसनैः धर्मार्थौ हत्वा शरोरभयात् आत्मानमपि हन्ति । (Ibid.)

c6.s3.42

It is the peculiar conception of the Hindus that the dharma patnī or the married wife is said to be the means of attaining the fruit of trivarga. The Cāṇakya Nīti Śāstra says³ ‘भार्यामूलं त्रिवर्गस्य’ and this very idea is expressed in different words and is put by Vālmīki into the mouth of Rāmachandra,⁴ on the eve of his departure to the forest when his mother and brother expressed their utmost desire to follow him. An

c6.s3.43

³ i, 32.

c6.s3.44

⁴ > धर्मार्थकामाः किल तात लोके समोक्षिता धर्मफलोदयेषु ।

c6.s3.45

तपश्चात्यन्तसेवितकामं हत्वा शरोरक्षयात धर्मार्थौ हन्ति ।
(Kāmandaka, i, 51; Trivandrum Sanskrit Series.)

c6.s3.46

ते तत्र सर्वे स्युरसंशयं मे भार्यैव वश्याऽभिमता सुपुत्रा ॥
यस्मिस्तु सर्वेस्युः असंनिविष्टा धर्मोयतः स्यात्तदुपक्रमेत ।
द्वेष्यो भवत्यर्थपरोहि लोके कामात्मा खलु अपि न प्रशस्ता ॥
(Ayōdhya Kāṇḍa, xxi, 58 and 59.)

c6.s3.47

agreeable wife increases *dharma*, *artha* and *kāma* by giving birth to a son. Commenting in his own excellent way Govindarāja makes out *dharma* as of great importance in the list of *puruṣārthas*. He quotes also धर्मोहि धर्महेतुः अर्थहेतुः काम्यमानस्रक्चन्दनवनितादि हेतुश्च । *Trivarga* itself is compared here to a wife, with the qualities of agreeableness, friendliness and bringing forth a good son.¹

c6.s3.48

¹ लोकप्रसिद्धाः त्रयः पुरुषार्थाः । तेषु सर्वमूलत्वादितरयोः सापायत्वाच्च धर्म एवाश्रयणीय इति स्थापितं भवति । (*Ayōdhya Kāṇḍa*, xxi. 65.)

c6.s3.49

Again in the *Cāṇakaya Rāja Nīti Śāstra* it is said² that he who will spend his time without due observance of the *trivarga* is a dead person though he lives. He breathes, but only as do the bellows of an iron-smith.'

c6.s3.50

² यस्य त्रिवर्गशून्यानि दिनानियान्ति देहिनः । स लोहकार भस्त्रेव श्वसन्नपि न जीवति । (viii. 37.)

c6.s3.51

The significance of *artha* is clearly expounded by Arjuna in his discourse to Yudhiṣṭhira when he wishes to retire to the forest after the catastrophe at Kurukṣētra. Arjuna says *artha* is the means for *dharma*, *kāma* and the ultimate realization of heaven. Life is not worth living without *artha*. Like the summer pond a man dispossessed of the waters of *artha* becomes unfit for anything in the world. A man of wealth is alone the person to reckon with. Wealth is both a friend and a relative. Happiness and anger, learning and conduct originate from this. The progress of society and welfare depends on this. It is a never-failing current of deep waters.³ Thus it becomes clear that there are two schools of Indian thought, one taking *dharma* as a paramount factor, and the other *artha* or wealth but without prejudice to *dharma*.

c6.s3.52

³ *Śanti Parva*, chap. viii. 11 ff.

c6.s3.53

In the same way Tamil literature which has not unfortunately any set treatise on the science and art of polity contains certain texts which can be gathered by careful reading. Thus, in the *Puranāṉū u*,¹ *artha* and *kāma* take their source in *dharma*. Hence without the latter there will be no real enjoyment by means of wealth. According to the author of *Tiru Kōvaiyar* wealth is so important that even sages and kings cannot get on without it.² Tirumaṅgai Āḻvār agrees with this opinion. Here *artha* is said to be of capital importance, inasmuch as it forms the means for the attainment of *dharma* and *kāma*. This same idea finds expression in *Nālaḍiyār*.³

c6.s3.54

¹ சிறப்புடை மரபிற் பொருளு மின்பமு றைத்து வழிப்பவேச் தோற்றம் போல (31).

c6.s3.55

² முனிவரு மன்னரு முன்னுவபொன்னுள் முடியும். (*Tirukōvai*, 332.) ஆராயில்தானே அறம்பொருளி ன்பமென்ற ஆரார் இவற்றி னிடையதனை எய்துவார் சீரா ரிருதலையும் எய்துவர். (Tirumaṅgai Āḻvār in the *Śiriya Tirumaḍal*, 3-4.)

c6.s3.56

³ வடுவிலா வையத்து மன்னிய மூன்றில் வடுவென நெய்த விருதலையு மெய்தும். (114)

c6.s3.57

Apart from these scattered references there is the *Tirukkuṟaḷ* of Tiruvaḷḷuvar which is a treatise on these three objects of life; hence the work is known as *muppaḷ*, a synonym for *trivarga*, given by Śīttalai Śāttanār, the famous poet.⁴ The three divisions of the poem are அறம், பொருள், இன்பம். Parimēlaḻakar, the celebrated commentator of this great treatise, explains briefly what these terms connote. According to him ‘*aram*’ is to carry out what has been ordained by Manu and other law-givers, and to refrain from what has been prohibited by them. He classifies this into three parts: ஒழுக்கம், வழக்கு, தண்டம் which exactly correspond to āchāra, vyavahāra, and prāyaśchitta, of Sanskrit lore. The first is the observance of sādhāraṇa dharma (common) including svadharma. This latter is very important inasmuch as it enforces the responsibilities of the individual. This is the individual whom, as Miss Follet the author of the New State remarks, the modern state has not yet found. The second (or vyavahāra) constitutes eighteen different kinds such as borrowing, deposit, etc. This is the right of person and property. The third sub-division is daṇḍa which concerns those who stray beyond the beaten track of āchāra, as āchāra and vyavahāra belong to the category of positive law. Tiruvaḷḷuvar has taken only the first sub-division ஒழுக்கம் under his main division of ‘aram’. Here are examined the duties common to all classes of society, the observance of which would result in happy home-life and ultimate release from re-birth. Among these universal dharmas figure prominently dāna (gifts) and tava (penance).¹ After dealing with aram or dharma in 318 stanzas, the poet takes up the second purushārtha (பொருள்) which is expounded in 700 verses. Here is examined Rāja Nīti, the essence of which constitutes protection and administration of the state. This is again sub-divided into three sections அரசியலில் (nature of government), அங்கவியல் (organs of government), ஒழிபியலில் (other features of government). The last division of this treatise contains 250 stanzas which deal with kāma or normal enjoyments in life. To realize this, wealth is a necessary factor. This is again sub-divided into two sections (களவியல்) pre-nuptial love and (கற்பியல்) post-nuptial love. It is interesting how Valluvar has closely followed the *Smṛtis* like Manu as clearly explained by Parimēlaḷagar in his great commentary. It is said that the three kings of the Tamil land, the Pāṇḍya, the Chōḷa and the Chēra drew much real information from the pages of this treatise and carried on their administration along the lines laid down therein.

c6.s3.58

⁴ பாழுறை தேர் வள்ளுவர் முப்பால்.

c6.s3.59

¹ தானந் தவமிரண்டுந் தாங்கா வியனுலகம் வானம் வழங்கா தெனின். (Kural, chap. ii. 9.)

c6.s3.60

Thus from a study of both the extant Sanskrit and Tamil literature it is clear that these three aims of life are inter-dependent and each by itself cannot stand by itself alone. Kālidāsa in his inimitable style says चतुर्वर्गफलज्ञानं.¹ This *chaturvarga* includes the fourth end, namely, *mokṣa* to which reference has already been made. The *Amara Kōsa* says ² these three ends, it has been realized, cannot be separated if life were to sail smoothly on the waters of this world-ocean. In order that these may flourish unhampered there must be an efficient exercise of *daṇḍa* and this, to be effective, must be administered with unflinching righteousness. Else as it is stated in the famous historical play *Mudra-Rākshasa*,³ *durnaya* or evil policy would root out the principles of *trivarga*. Thus if the plant of *trivarga* is to grow unfettered and luxuriant, the state must pursue a righteous policy. On the state alone depends the successful prosecution of the three ends of life. This was clearly felt by the ancient Hindus and the superstructure of these objects of life was made deliberately to rest upon the solid rock of the state pledged to pursue righteousness at all times and in all places.

c6.s3.61

¹ *Raghu*, x. 22.

c6.s3.62

² त्रिवर्गो धर्मकामार्थः चतुर्वर्गः समोक्षकैः उन्मूलयितुमोशोऽहं त्रिवर्गमिव दुर्नयः । Act. v. 22.

Linked texts (13)