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War in Ancient India c6.s6: Section VII: Arms and Armour from Sculpture

War in Ancient India c6.s6

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Section VII: Arms and Armour from Sculpture

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It is nearly forty years since Baden Powell wrote as follows in the *Journal of Indian Art and Industry* (Vol. I): "It will be interesting when, some day, some antiquarian¹²⁸ is found to reproduce the various ancient forms of weapons as they appear in the sculpture." Here an humble endeavour is made to study as far as possible some of the interesting sculptures relating to ancient arms and armour which disclose many peculiarities of ancient warfare and thus possess great historical value. Much spade work has been done here by Edgerton and Birdwood whose observations are found in their respective publications, *The Illustrated Arms of India* and *The Industrial Arts of India*, and also by Bhattacharya and Gopinatha Rao, so far as iconography is concerned. There are also other interesting works like those of Burgess, Cunningham, Havell, Fergusson, and Smith, most of which have also been laid under contribution.

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¹²⁸ There is not yet a single publication in India on the lines of Prof. A. Parmentier's 'Album Historique' published in four volumes under the direction of Ernest Louisse of the French Academy (Librarié Armand Colin, Paris, 1905). It is a study of the habits and customs, of arts and sciences, of weapons and ornaments, and of institutions of the age from the 4th to the 19th century A.D. For our purpose the attention of the reader can be directed to soldiers and cavalry warriors of Gaul clad in military attire on p. 2 of Volume I and of their different arms (Vol. I, pp. 4-5), and of the French military costume and implements (Vol. I, pp. 91 and 99), of the mediaeval customs of the 7th to the 15th century A.D. (p. 137) and of the battle scenes of England (pp. 172-73; see also pp. 196 ff.). This helps the comparative student of military history of the East to study Western institutions.

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A careful study of the various types of sculptures found in various parts of India from far-off Gāndhāra to South Indian temples, is invaluable to a student of Hindu military History. Cunningham¹²⁹ says: ‘ With regard to the use of sculptures, although no certain examples now remain of an earlier date than the time of Aśoka, yet I can point to the statement of Curtis that an image of Hercules was carried in front of the army of Porus as he advanced against Alexander. This worship of Hercules is also mentioned by Strabo on the authority of Megasthenes as prevailing in the plain country while the people of the hill worshipped Bacchus. But from the post-Aśoka period we find a rich and wonderful development of this great art. It may be that during the comparatively brief interval of peace during Aśoka’s reign that the manufacturers of weapon and other war-arms as well as the artisans took to this important work, much of it being absorbed by the State. The devout followers of Buddhism took great interest in getting the various Buddhist shrines ornamented and painted. The result was good and striking reliefs in the place of frescoes. ‘ These circumstances explain ’, says E. B. Havell, ‘ the peculiar characteristics of the Bhārhut, Sāñchī and Amarāvatī sculptures ’. ¹³⁰

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¹²⁹ Coins of Ancient India (Preface).

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¹³⁰ Indian Sculpture and Painting, p. 92.

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Among the earliest sculptures known so far are those at Bhārhut.¹³¹ Here in the stūpa are found boats, chariots drawn by horses, carriages drawn by bullocks, many musical instruments, and flags. Here again we notice the old Indian broadsword as described by Megasthenes. ‘All wear swords of vast breadth, though scarce exceeding three cubits in length. When they engage in close fight they grasp these with both their hands so that the blow may be the stronger’.

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¹³¹ V. A. Smith: A History of Fine Art in India and Ceylon, p. 30.

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Another interesting feature is a procession of maskers and soldiers. The men are of the Himalayan region, wearing dress and armour apparently made of leather used in that region in the time of Kaniṣka about 100 A.D. The arrangement of the scales of the armour with the curved ends uppermost, bears resemblance to similar discoveries by Stein in Khotan.¹³² We owe much to Cunningham and Fergusson for a critical study of the sculptures of Sāñchī and other places. There is a vivid representation of the operations of a siege in one of the reliefs.¹³³ The equipment of the soldiers is a tight-fitting dress and quilt. All have their swords hung on their left side. Apparently the swords are short, but very broad; bows and arrows are invariably found in the hands of the foot-soldiers. There are eleven topes in Sāñchī; and proceeding further we see that every pillar in every tope has some historical incident or other that is full of interest to us. Sieges and triumphal processions may be said to be a regular feature of the whole.

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¹³² M. Aurel Stein: *Ancient Khotan*, Vol. I, p. 252.

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¹³³ Edgerton: *Indian and Oriental Armour*.

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The most striking is the remarkable study of a besieged city in Tope No. 1. Soldiers attacking the enemy down with arrows and huge stones below are found on the gateway and also on the great towers. Here we find no swords of any description.¹³⁴ But that they were none the less used by the warriors is obvious from the fact that several of them have long shields. On the left side are seen two men carrying ensigns, a number of elephants with riders, and also one man riding on a horse. We also notice distinctly enough the quiver which is fastened to the right shoulder, and also the fastenings, which are apparently leather straps, are passed over the shoulders, crossed in front, and carried to the back. The dress is a kilt and also a jacket of some kind. According to Cunningham their dress on the whole resembles that of the Scottish Highlanders. Their principal weapon used in this siege-fight seems to be the arrow. ‘Their (Mauryan) arrows are little less than three cubits long and fly with such force that neither shield nor breast-plate nor armour is strong enough to withstand them’. But in the bas-relief some arrows seem to be even four or five feet long. It is also seen that some warriors have darts in the place of arrows.

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¹³⁴ Cunningham: *The Bhilsa Topes*, ch. XIV.

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An idea of the different kinds and shapes of weapons used in the first century A.D. may be obtained by an examination of Plate xxxiii¹³⁵ relating to Sānchi sculptures in general. Here are found swords, shields,¹³⁶ two kinds of axes, trident, javelins, Vajra, dagger, elephant-goad, bells, flags, fly-whisk, two or three kinds of drums, umbrellas, etc. Comparing them with those of Udayagiri (A.D. 401) we may conclude that there are material differences between the weapons used then and here especially with regard to swords and the Vajra.

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¹³⁵ Op. Cit., *The Bhilsa Topes*, (the last plate in the book).

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¹³⁶ In the *Rock paintings of the Mahadeo Hills* we meet with warriors with sword and shield. (*Indian Art and Letters* X. pp. 35-41, plates VIII and IX).

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From this it can be inferred that there has been a slow but sure evolution in the form and make of weapons with the march of time. In the art of war it was not one of stagnation but real progress; again, in the same Plate we study two kinds of shields, one smaller than the other. The latter are worn by foot soldiers, and the former by horsemen.

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At Sāñchī, again, there is a representation of the War of Relics.¹³⁷ Here it is remarked that the Lichchhavis, the Śākyas, the Balis, the Kolyas, the Mallas of Pāva and a Brahman advance against Kusinara to recapture the relics of Buddha from the Mallas of Kusinara. In the middle of the Plate the siege of the town, and to the left the departure of the victors are illustrated.

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¹³⁷ See Ludwig Bachhofer: *Early Indian Sculpture*, Vol. I, plate 47.

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On a pillar in the Amarāvati tope, decidedly later than those of Sāñchī, we notice a straight sword, long spears and long bows with horsemen and elephants. But there are no chariots here. This does not mean that the chariots had fallen into disuse. More or less the same kind of swords, oblong shields, long bows are also noticed in the Hill Caves of Orissa, evidently before the fifth or sixth century A.D.¹³⁸ In the more ancient sculptures of the temples of Bhuvaneśvara we meet with processions of infantry, cavalry, and elephants. There are heroic warriors elegantly sculptured. A small dagger hangs from the waist belt of every one of them.

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¹³⁸ Hunter: *Orissa*, I, p. 235.

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In another frieze there is a little scene of war horses with heroes on them. Behind these are foot soldiers apparently in marching order equipped with bows and swords. The bow is long and the sword is straight. Further behind them follow the commissariat. Lastly come other soldiers, with straight swords and oblong shields evidently made of hide. On the other side is seen the army council where councillors are engaged in deep deliberation. We also see an order of priests doing the necessary ceremonials to bless them with victory.

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Let us now turn to the temple at Kanarak, of which there is an excellent plate (Plate XLIII)¹³⁹ in Havell's book. Outside the southern façade are represented two huge horses apparently guarding the gate, the one intact and the other in ruins. This is a war-horse with a Roman nose and prominent eyes. He is very richly caparisoned with bosses and bands round the face, heavy chain-armour on the neck, tasselled necklaces, jewelled bracelets on all four legs and a tasselled breast-band which keeps the saddle in position. There is also a sheath capable of holding a small dagger and a quiver with tethered arrows. The horse is trampling under his foot two soldiers who wear short and curved swords. They have not the necessary equipment for defence. But there are seen circular shields besides a number of musical instruments, apparently resembling modern ones, such as cymbals, the small drum, the guitar, etc. These seem to belong to the middle ages. It is interesting to read Havell's remarks on this scene: ‘Here Indian sculptors have shown that they can express with as much fire and passion as the greatest European art the pride of victory and the glory of triumphant warfare: for not even the Homeric grandeur of the Elgin marbles surpasses the magnificent movement and modelling of this Indian Achilles and the monumental war-horse in its massive strength and vigour is not unworthy of comparison with Verachio’s famous masterpiece at Venice ’.

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¹³⁹ Havell: *Indian Sculpture and Painting*, p. 147.

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We have in Kanarak, again, a war horse led by a warrior and trampling an Asura, though it is assigned to the 13th century A.D.¹⁴⁰ Others worth mentioning are an elephant lifting an Asura and a gryphon trampling and goring Asuras.¹⁴¹

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¹⁴⁰ See Coomaraswami: *Viśvakarma*, 1914, Pl. LXXVI.

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¹⁴¹ *Ibid.*, LXXVII and LXXIX.

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Further, we have a number of tableaux on the upper verandah of the Queen’s monastery.¹⁴² Hunter is of opinion that it may be dated 200 B.C. Here is splendidly represented a battle between a prince and a princess. The princess is defeated and is carried away forcibly. We find only the shield and not the sword in her hand. Apparently the latter was lost in the conflict. The sword of the prince is unsheathed. Again, in the Ganesh cave high up the hill, there is another series of tableaux giving the same story with slight variations. When the prince is running with her on an elephant he is pursued by a number of soldiers. The use of the bow by a number of soldiers is seen in the hunting scene. In these sculptures we have the representation of a woman-warrior wearing a sword and a shield and capable of resisting a trained prince. These cases of women fighting in the field are indeed very rare and hence remarkable.

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¹⁴² Hunter: *Orissa*, I.

The Ajanta Caves

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No study of Indian art would be complete without some reference at least to the Ajanta Cave paintings.¹⁴³ The weapons in these are without any exception very primitive ones. In Plates vii and xxvi are seen representations of a curved dagger held point upwards and perhaps in the left hand so as to leave the right hand free. Plate viii probably refers to the return of a party from a hunt. The scimitar is placed on the right shoulder. But there is no scabbard. Then we see a peculiar kind of shield which looks as if it were a segment of a wheel with the spokes left out. It may be the round kind of shield with grotesque forms of tufts or tassels round the fringes thrown over behind the shoulder with straps and buckles. There is also a quiver for holding arrows which is slung on the back of a foot-soldier, marching with a horse-rider. But curiously no bows are seen.

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In Plate xix are noticed long lances with diamond-shaped blades and streamers flying from them in the air. In Plates xxi and xxxviii are found spears. In the former, apparently an elephant-catching scene, is a curious kind of spear sharpened at the edge, about eight feet long and furnished with three rings at the top. The blade is almost one foot long. The latter seems to illustrate the scenes from the Viśvatantra Jātaka. Here the soldier wears a sharp thrusting spear with heavy knobs cleanly represented beside the horses. In Plate xxiii is a highly ornamented sword with a strong hilt and also a cross-bar. There are ornamental knobs along the scabbard. In Plate xxvii is a short dagger worn at the waist used by hill tribes in West India even to-day. A short but stout club is carried on the right shoulder, used as a weapon of war in early days. Besides there is the ordinary simple type of bow with one piece. Plates xxiv and xxxvii are vivid representations of chariots. In the former are seen ladies also seated. It appears to be the one on which the king accompanied the army on its onward march to battle. The decorated paintings leave nothing to be desired. The battle-axes with long handles and about four feet in length each, are seen worn on the right shoulder in Plate xxxvi. The Bodhisattva himself is given a kukri, a survival of the ancient sword with a sharp concave edge used by the Gurkhas of to-day.

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Plates xvii and lvii afford deep interest. The motif in both seem to be the same and indicate the battle scene of Vijaya’s conquest of Ceylon with war-elephants, horses, and archers all carried in curricles. Two of these curricles carry eight or nine mounted horses and two or three war elephants. The Plates are indicative of the picturesque appearance of an army on the march. Almost every variety of weapons can be found here. The curricles are embellished with dragon-heads and the like. The soldiers carry standards flying from the sharp ends of their lances. Umbrellas and cāmaras or fly-whisks and instruments of martial music, which are a unique feature of ancient warfare, are also vividly represented. Here two cakras or discs with sharp edges on the outside and a ‘voided cross’ in the centre are shown as evidently discharged and warded off by the enemy’s lances. Scimitars like the chopper or the bill, both straight and of the primitive kind, are common. Shields both crescent and oblong are seen, handsomely curved in the longer dimension apparently made of leather. There are two bows of the classic double-curved variety. Both square and round quivers are also noticed.¹⁴⁴

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¹⁴⁴ The Ajanta Frescoes—India Society.

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The dress of the soldiers, it appears, was made in two pieces, viz. from the breast to the waist and again from the thigh to the soles. The chief musical instruments were the drum and the kettle-drum. In the pictures the troops are crossing a broad river and from the bank the enemies attack them. Possibly the soldiers attack from the water. Both horses and elephants are provided with excellent ornamental trappings. A bell is seen hanging from the elephant’s back. The war-horses have the prominent Roman nose, piercing eyes, and a gallant appearance. The trappings resemble those of the present day. The one peculiarity is that no stirrups are seen in any of the pictures. The usual war accoutrements of the elephant and the elephant goad, like the modern one, are easily traced. Plate lv shows two kinds of helmets: pot-shaped ones, and skull caps, made of leather or iron richly ornamented. Again in Cave x¹⁴⁵ there is a peculiar kind of buckler ornamented with various designs and motifs and triangular in shape. The writer in the *Journal of Indian Art* remarks: ‘the langure de hoeuf or cross-hilted katar, which is supposed by some to be a peculiarly ancient weapon, nowhere appears’. But a careful examination of Plate xxiii¹⁴⁶ seems clearly to indicate the existence of such a cross-hilted sword in the Ajanta paintings. In Fig. 25 (B) of the *Journal* the Vajra or thunderbolt is also shown.¹⁴⁷ The Ajanta paintings, now somewhat mutilated, are valuable for their reference to the political relations that existed between India and Persia in 625-26 A.D. Here the Persian envoys present Pulakeśin with valuable presents sent by their king. This is an unmistakable reference to the friendly relations that existed between the two States.¹⁴⁸

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¹⁴⁵ Journal of Indian Art, Vol. VIII.

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¹⁴⁶ Ajanta Frescoes.

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¹⁴⁷ *Journal of Indian Art*, Vol. VIII.

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¹⁴⁸ Smith: *Oxford History of India*, p. 165.

The Gandhara Sculptures

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The Gāndhāra sculptures may next be examined. Burgess identifies a figure holding Vajra or the thunderbolt, its form not apparently primitive, with that of Māra the tempter. Others identify it with Vajrapāṇi, the Bodhisattva, and Indra. There is, again, a figure in the Lahore Museum representing two soldiers, of which there is a Plate in the *Journal of Indian Art and Industry*.¹⁴⁹ Both are meagrely draped. They wear only loin-cloths. The knees and feet are left uncovered. In the one we notice a belt round the waist, a sheath with a sword the hilt of which is held in the left hand. On the back of the other soldier is seen a shield of almost oblong shape and also a sort of oval disc. But the face of this one is much mutilated. We noticed the part played by elephants in the Ajanta frescoes. There is a figure in the Mokalji's temple.¹⁵⁰ at Chitore representing an elephant pitted against another—a story often mentioned in literature. In the course of her observations on the Gāndhāra sculptures and early coins from Alexander’s time, Mrs. F. H. Andrews remarks: ‘It is in architectural, sculptural and mural decoration in India that the elephant is seen at its best.’¹⁵¹

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¹⁴⁹ Vol. VIII, Plate 10, Fig. 6. Burgess on the Gāndhāra Sculptures.

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¹⁵⁰ Smith: *A History of Fine Art*, p. 127.

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¹⁵¹ Journal of Indian Art, Vol. X.

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In South India there are numerous interesting and instructive sculptures, a systematic study of which would cover a large volume. Here an attempt is made to examine only a few of them to illustrate the Pallava, Choḷa and Vijayanagar art. Vivid representations of Pallava art are seen in Mahābalipuram (Chingleput District). There is fire and passion in the wonderful representation of Durgā slaying Mahiṣāsura.¹⁵² There is another relief exhibiting Arjuna’s penance to get possession of the magic weapon by which any powerful enemy could be easily humbled. The story is found in the Mahābhārata.¹⁵³

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¹⁵² Viśvakarma, Pl. XLV; Smith: Op. Cit., Pl. 87.

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¹⁵³ The Indian Ant. a special number on Māmallapuram.

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In the Choḷa period, there is also a wonderful representation of a battle between a general riding on an elephant and his adversary on horseback.¹⁵⁴ This is on the Begur stone dated about A.D. 934-38, in the Mysore territory, now in the Bangalore Museum. There is another bas-relief sculpture in the same Museum found in the Atakur stone dated about A.D. 949-50 representing a fight between a big hound and a mighty boar in which both are being killed by each other.

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¹⁵⁴ Smith: A History of Fine Art, p. 134.

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A beautiful sculptural representation of Būtuga slaying the Choḷa Rājāditya by stabbing him with a dagger, short but with a broad and curved blade of fine steel,¹⁵⁵ is noticed in a plate in *Epigraphia Carnatica* copied in Pura in the Mandya Taluk and of the date Śaka 1339.¹⁵⁶ Here one notices the high wavy sword with sharp points. There is another kind of sword resembling a flexible band, sometimes used as a belt apparently of leather. The weapon in No. 2 seems to be more rigid. Nos. 4 and 5 are copied from Varuṇa in the Mysore Taluk and are much earlier than the above, probably 960 A.D. Here the retainers are seen armed with cutlasses. There in the Middle Ages was a peculiar practice in South India of erecting Vīragals or memorial stones. Such memorial stones are even now found in great numbers in Southern India.

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¹⁵⁵ *Ep. Car.*, III, No. 41. (Maṇḍya).

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¹⁵⁶ *Ibid.*, Part i, p. 34.

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Perhaps the most vivid and lively representations of Vijayanagar art are those in the two temples at Tādpatri, Anantapur District—the Rāmeśvaram temple dedicated to Śiva, and the Cintatrāya temple to Viṣṇu. On the northern side of the Rāmeśvaram temple on the banks of the Pinākinī river, the Gopura is left unfinished from the middle. Here in the bas-relief on both sides of the two walls are seen demon soldiers, besides others wearing altogether different costumes. About a hundred varieties of dress are noticed here. In the other temple a furlong to the south, there is a remarkable representation of the whole story of the *Rāmāyaṇa* and also certain portions of the *Bhāgavata* finely sculptured. The reliefs are full of life and movement and exhibit fire and passion throughout. Except one or two figures the rest, several hundreds, are beautiful and present a freshness all their own. Chariots, war-horses, elephants, soldiers in battle array, actual operations in the field, all these afford remarkable subjects for study.

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Such a variety of design and beauty is noticed in a bas-relief of scenes from the Rāmāyaṇa representing the conquest of Ceylon and all the varied incidents of that Epic in the Hoysaleśvara temple, Halebid, and the Hazara Rāmasvāmi temple at Hampi.¹⁵⁷ It is worth noting that weapons of war like the axe, the knife and the dagger, are seen depicted on the Vīragals of this period.¹⁵⁸

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¹⁵⁷ Smith: Op. Cit., Plates 84 and 91.

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¹⁵⁸ Ep. Car., III, p. 34.

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Dr. Oppert refers to half a dozen temples in South India to prove the use of fire-arms in ancient India.¹⁵⁹ The Palni temple in the Madura District contains on the outer portion in an ancient stone maṇṭapa scenes of carved figures of soldiers carrying in their hands small fire-arms, apparently the small-sized guns mentioned in the Śukranītisāra. Bells are seen hanging from the belts worn round the waists of the soldiers. They wear slippers for their feet and a peculiar kind of cap on their heads. Again in the Śārṅgapāṇi temple at Kumbakonam in the front gate¹⁶⁰ of the fifth story from the top is the figure of a king sitting in a chariot drawn by horses and surrounded by a number of soldiers. Before this chariot march two sepoys with pistols in their hands. In the Nūrrūkkāl maṇṭapam of the Conjeevaram temple is a huge pillar on the north side of the maṇṭapa. Here there is a relief vividly representing a fight between two bodies of soldiers. Mounted horsemen are also seen. The foot-soldier is shown aiming his fire-arm against the enemy. Such things are also noticed in the Tanjore temple and the temple at Perur, in the Coimbatore District. In the latter there is an actual representation of a soldier loading a musket. To this last Fergusson assigns the eighteenth century A.D. But Dr. Oppert puts it very much earlier.

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¹⁵⁹ Dr. Oppert: Weapons, etc. of the Hindus.

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¹⁶⁰ The gopuram, it may be noted, belongs to the 18th century.

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From these sculptures in India it is interesting to turn to Java where the Indian tradition is copied wholesale. The Borobudur sculptures illustrate Jātaka scenes. They are ascribed roughly to the eleventh century A.D. There is a striking relief series Pl. I, fig. 5,¹⁶⁰ᵃ representing a battle in which two others are seen on each side, one wearing a curved sword in the right hand and a long shield, and the other a mace and a round shield resembling a wheel, all apparently made of iron. The story of the Rāmāyaṇa is also given, as in the Tādpatri temple from Rāma's going to the forest down to the killing of Rāvaṇa. There is also a wonderful sculpture of an ancient Hindu ship.¹⁶¹

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In the temple of Ankhor Vat, in Cambodia, the Kambojas who colonised it about the fourth century A.D. kept up the traditions of the Kashmir schools. The motifs in the various reliefs are stories and battle scenes as described in the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata.¹⁶² These are described in minute detail and with wonderful vigour. Perhaps they follow the technicalities of the Amarāvatī sculptures. Magic plays a prominent part in these reliefs. Indrajit showing the magical head of

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¹⁶⁰ᵃ Vol. I, Plate V (N. J. Krom and T. Van Erp). ¹⁶¹ Ibid. ¹⁶² Havell: Indian Sculpture and Painting, p. 137.

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Rāma to Sītā and slaying the Māyā Sītā before Rāma are life-like. There are two figures of the heads of Bhīmasena in Central Java. The heroic splendour and manly grace of the born fighter are wonderfully depicted. Havell aptly remarks: ‘We recognise a young Alexander, a fighter who knows his own strength and revels in it. All his desires and aims are human yet there is nothing low or brutal in his nature. He is a great natural hero and war-lord fit to lead and command a noble free-born race. To compare these with the head of the Buddha shows how far the artistic skill has advanced in Java and therefore in India. This figure has a lovely appearance, the portrait type of all that is pure, spiritual and holy in Indian thought and religion’. ¹⁶³ Again, in Ankhor Vat we find in a bas-relief straight two-handed iron swords worn by foot-soldiers. Students conversant with Alexander’s invasion of India know that these were in use in India in the fourth century B.C. We may add that this weapon was used as a sword of state by the kings of Siam. It justifies Ruskin’s words: ‘Whole eras of mighty history are summed and the patience of dead myriads are concentrated in the existence of a noble (national) art.’

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¹⁶³ Ibid., Plates 41 and 42.

Iconography

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In this connexion a word may be said about Indian Iconography which affords adequate material for the study of the forms and the uses of several weapons current in Ancient India and is therefore of great interest and significance. A detailed study of the different images has been made by Gopinatha Rao and Bhattacharya.

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We are concerned here only with the arms and armour worn and the symbols they stand for. We may take some prominent images and examine them briefly.

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Though the several hymns in the Ṛg Veda bear eloquent testimony to the existence of image worship, it became highly popular only during the epoch of the Purāṇas. Besides Skanda several other war-gods and goddesses waged wars against demons Asuras and Rākṣasas. In this category come Viṣṇu, Sūrya, Gaṇeśa, Śiva, and several goddesses of whom Durgā is the most prominent. Abbé Dubois¹⁶⁴ speaks of thirty-two gods to each of whom one weapon or another is peculiar. Viṣṇu is popularly addressed as Śankha-cakra-gadā-pāṇi, that is, having Śankha or conch, Cakra or disc, and Gadā or wooden mace in three of his four hands. In another verse the Śārngi and the Nandakī (bow and sword) are also attributed to him. By blowing the conch he strikes terror into the enemy. The Cakra attributed to Viṣṇu is of two different forms, as is seen in the sculptured images.¹⁶⁵ The spokes of one are like the wheels of the ordinary car, while those of the other resemble the petals of a lotus. The Cakra belongs to the category of a missile. According to Vāmanapurāṇa¹⁶⁶ as well as the sculptured figure, the Cakra has lustrous and sharp edges. The gadā is the wooden mace or heavy staff with a tapering top and a stout bottom. The Śāranga or the bow of Viṣṇu has a single bend, three bends, and five bends respectively, showing a perceptible evolution of the form of the weapon.¹⁶⁷ Nandakī is the name of the sword attributed to Viṣṇu. Though the Varāha-purāṇa¹⁶⁸ gives an allegorical interpretation of it (i.e. that the conch stands for the destruction of avidyā or ignorance, the sword for dispelling ignorance, the disc for the circles of time, the club for routing irreligious monarchs), yet the fact remains that such weapons were in common use in this land.

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¹⁶⁴ *Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies*, p. 689.

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¹⁶⁵ Gopinatha Rao: *Hindu Iconography*, Vol. I. Ayūdhapuruṣas.

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¹⁶⁶ Ch. 79.

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¹⁶⁷ Gopinatha Rao: Op. cit.

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¹⁶⁸ See Vedānta Deśika’s Ṣoḍaśāyudhastotra where the allegorical interpretations are developed.

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Again, the conception of the sun-god in Indian mythology is of value to the student of ancient Indian military history. The idea is that the sun-god wants to destroy darkness. Therefore he dons a lustrous armour and with his two queens behind, starts marching in his swift flying chariot drawn by seven powerful steeds, Aruṇa (dawn) being his charioteer. In front of the car march two soldiers, one with a sword and the other with a śūla or trident, a kind of spear with three keen edges. The piercing rays of the sun are the shooting arrows. Such a grand conception is well represented in stone in the Sun Temple at Kanarak, of which there are two excellent plates in the published work of Lord Ronaldshay.¹⁶⁹ The first plate shows the sun-god with his accoutrements in a standing posture, while the second is a representation of the chariot with huge stone wheels all carved and ornamented. Though sun temples are rarely found, the sun-god is still worshipped in India with great veneration as the deity capable of bestowing on mankind both health and wealth. Thus the whole thing presents a life-like portrait of the military dress as well as the march against an enemy. Śiva is represented in various aspects, as holder of the Pināka or the bow, of the Khaṭvāṅga or the heavy club, as Mṛgadhara or wearer of a shield of antelope-skin, and of the śūla or trident. There is in the Elephanta Caves a splendid fragment of a huge sculptured image of Śiva the destroyer.¹⁷⁰ In the same way the elephant head of Gaṇeśa is a symbolical representation of victory. Hence at the commencement of every undertaking the orthodox Hindu offers prayers to this god to bless him with success. He is the Lord, again, of the Gaṇas or troops of inferior deities.¹⁷¹ There is a good image of him (see Plate I in the *Industrial Arts of India*) with ankuśa and paraśu in his hands. Subrahmaṇya or Skanda, the celebrated war-god of the Purāṇic literature, has a peacock for his vehicle (vāhana), just as Viṣṇu has the Garuḍa or the golden eagle. He is represented with six heads. He wears the weapon Śakti resembling a spear, and his standard of victory flies over his head. Other weapons attributed to him are the bows and arrows. He is the devasenāpati, the commander-general of the celestials. His is the symbol of energy and strength. These gods are very familiar even to children in India, for every village temple contains some of them.

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¹⁶⁹ A Birds-eye-view of India, Plates 1 and 21.

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¹⁷⁰ Havell: *Indian Sculpture and Painting*, p. 49.

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¹⁷¹ *Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa*, 82.

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Lastly, we may consider Durgā, the war-goddess, who is represented in several temples. Special mention may be made of the one found in Mahābalipuram; there was another at Singasari in Java, now in the Ethnographic Museum at Leyden. It is a masterpiece in a great stone alto-relievo of Durgā killing the demon Mahiṣa.

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It roughly belongs to the 10th century A.D. or later. It is worth while comparing this with the description of Durgā’s battle with the Asura in literature.¹⁷² In the battle that raged between Mahiṣāsura and Indra the latter was defeated and consequently the Asura became the god of heaven. All the gods became enraged and created a goddess, each out of his own element. Śiva endowed her with a trident, Viṣṇu with a disc, Varuṇa with a noose, Agni with a spear, Marut with bow, arrows and quiver, Indra with the thunderbolt and the bell of his elephant, Yama with pāśa or rope, Kāla with a lustrous sword and shield, and Viśvakarma with a battle-axe. She rode on a lion with a voice that struck terror. In the battle thousands of Asuras with horses, elephants, and chariots offered resistance. The Mahiṣāsura himself was equipped with the tomara, bhindipāla, śakti, musala, gadā, paraśu, and paṭṭiśa. Durgā attacked him with all her fury and a river of blood flowed in the field. Cinchchuna, the general-in-chief of the Asura host, was killed with the trident, his staff, chariots, and horses being broken. Lastly came Mahiṣa assuming the forms of a man, an elephant, and a buffalo, and fought bravely, but in vain. His head was cut off and the whole of heaven and earth was filled with indescribable joy.

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¹⁷² See, for instance, Devi Bhāgavatam, Bk. V. Ch. VIII.

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Another manifestation of Śiva is Vīrabhadra, an image of which stands on the Kalmunda with Bhadrakālī in the Perur temple, in Coimbatore District. It agrees with the description in literature.¹⁷³ He has one head but thirty-two hands, matted hair, and three eyes. In the sixteen hands on his right side he wears respectively the symbol of protection from fear (abhayaprada), sword, trident, cakra, damaru, bow, arrow, ploughshare, lotus, scad of knowledge, barbed spear, dagger, rudrākṣamālā, khaṭvāṅga, club and battle-axe. In those on the left side he wears respectively the symbol of blessing, a piece of wood, the hammer, the goad, the noose, the snake, the fire, the deer, the bell, the bow, the gun, the lotus, a water pot, the shield, and others.

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¹⁷³ Bhā., P. IV. 5. (whole).

Numismatic Evidence

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Examining the various coins found in India we notice some kinds of arms and armour exhibited in them. In the Persian and Macedonian types of coins¹⁷⁴ the obverse side contains a mounted horseman wearing curio, with lance in rest, pursuing two mounted men on an elephant. This is identified with Porus's pursuit on an elephant but cannot be conclusively accepted. On the reverse is one wearing a spear and a thunderbolt. The Indian types of Bactrian kings are illustrated by Appolodotus I wearing the bow and arrow and Antimachus naked to the waist wearing a trident in the right arm and perhaps a shield hanging from his left. In the face of this numismatic evidence, Baden-Powell's conjecture that the śūla was only a temple symbol and not a war weapon, falls to the ground. Moreover, it was probably the symbol of the Kushan kings, of the first century A.D., as testified to by their coins.¹⁷⁵ Again, in the numerous Indo-Scythian coins¹⁷⁶ the kings wear coats of mail, or chain armour, helmets with straight swords and lances, some standing and others on horses or elephants. There are also short curved spears, clubs, and other weapons. Some of them belonged to the second or third century B.C. or even much earlier.

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¹⁷⁴ Cambridge History of India, I, Plate I.

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¹⁷⁵ Ibid., p. 582.

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¹⁷⁶ Ibid., Plate III.

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We conclude with the words of Sir George Birdwood: ‘For variety, extent, and gorgeousness, and ethnological and artistic value, no such collection of Indian arms exists in this country (England) as that belonging to the Prince of Wales. It represents the armourer’s art in every province of India, from the rude spear of the savage Nicobar islanders to the costly, damascened, sculptured, and jewelled swords, and shields, spears, daggers and match-locks of Kashmir, Katch and Vizianagaram. The most striking object in the collection is a suit of armour made entirely of the horny scales of the Indian armadillo, or pangolin, encrusted with gold, and turquoises, and garnets.’¹⁷⁷

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¹⁷⁷ The Industrial Arts of India, pp. 171-2.

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Thus it is obvious that the artistic instinct was developed to a wonderfully high degree in ancient India of which any Indian may be proud. But this steady and onward march of Indian art and sculpture was sometimes arrested by the continuous inroads of foreigners. Even in such troublous times the arts of peace were not neglected. There was a temporary setback since the advent of the East India Company. But to-day with the growth of nationalism there is a significant awakening in this direction.

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144. The Athenian Expedition to Sicily

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The Athenian expedition to Sicily, which began in 415 B.C., was a pivotal moment in the Peloponnesian War. It was a massive undertaking, driven by the ambition of Alcibiades and the desire of the Athenian people to expand their empire. The fleet, consisting of over one hundred triremes and thousands of hoplites, set sail with high hopes of conquest. However, the expedition was plagued by poor leadership, internal political strife, and the unexpected resilience of the Syracusans.

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The initial successes of the Athenians were soon overshadowed by the arrival of the Spartan general Gylippus, who revitalized the Syracusan defense. The tide of the war turned against Athens, and the once-mighty fleet found itself trapped in the Great Harbor of Syracuse. The subsequent battles were disastrous for the Athenians, leading to the total destruction of their forces and the capture of their commanders, Nicias and Demosthenes.

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The failure of the Sicilian expedition was a catastrophic blow to Athens, both militarily and psychologically. It depleted the city's resources, decimated its manpower, and emboldened its enemies. The loss of the fleet and the army marked the beginning of the end for the Athenian Empire, as it struggled to recover from the immense losses and the shifting alliances of the Greek world. The war would continue for several more years, but the defeat in Sicily had irrevocably altered the course of the conflict.

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