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Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jain Canons, with Commentaries: An Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey c9.t2: Field-Crops

Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jain Canons, with Commentaries: An Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey c9.t2

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Field-Crops

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The predominant grain harvest was that of rice of different varieties. *Kalamaśāli*, a variety of rice, which was cultivated in the eastern part of India, is referred to;¹⁴ *raktasāli*, *mahāsāli* and *gandhasāli* are mentioned as other varieties.¹⁵ The paddy was sown during the rains, and where ripe, the crops were harvested with newly sharpened sickles (*navapajjana chim asiehim*), thrashed, winnowed and then taken to the granary where they were filled in new jars which were sealed and kept in a corner.¹⁶

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¹⁴ Uvā., 1, p. 8.. cf *Theragāthā* (VS 208) where corn fields of Magadha are described a rich

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¹⁵ Brh Bhā., 2 3301 3307 1. also see *Caraka*, ch 27 p 734

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¹⁶ Āyā., 7. p. 86.

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The piles of the rings (*valaya*) were made of straws and leaves known as *kadapalla* and *tanapalla*, which served as receptacles for grains. The inside floor space was coated with cow-dung.¹⁷ The round heap of grains was called *puñja*; if it was slightly oblong, it was called *rāsi*; a heap of grains was pressed close to the wall; besmeared with ashes (*lanchita*); sealed with cow-dung and kept in the required places, screening it with a screen of straw and bamboos.¹⁸ In the rainy searon the grains were stored in a granary made of earth (*kottha*), of straw and bamboos (*palla*), a granary standing on pillars (*mañca*), the upper storey of the house (*mālā*), covered with a lid coated with cow-dung (*olitta*), coated with mud all over (*litta*), closed (*pihita*), sealed with earthen seals (*muddiya*) by making lines etc. (*lanchiya*).¹⁹ *Kumbhī*, *karabhī*,²⁰ *pallaga*,²¹ *muttoli*, *mukha*, *idura*, *alindaa* and *ocāra* (*apacārī*)²² are mentioned as other forms of storage In *gañjasālā* various kinds of corns were pounded.²³ A wooden mortar (*udūkhala*) for cleansing rice and a threshing floor (*khalaya*) were known.²⁴ Then mention is made of a cattle-feeding-basket (*gokilañja*) and winnowing sieve (*suppahattara*).²⁵

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¹⁷ Brh. Bhā., 2 3298.

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¹⁸ Ibid 2. 3311 f.

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¹⁹ Brh Sū., 2 3 and Brh 2 3301-9

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²⁰ Brh. Sū., 2 10. Also mentioned in the Rāmāyaṇa, II 91 71

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²¹ Ā cā. Ṭī., (Hari.) p 75 a *Mutoli* is also mentioned in the *Majjhima* I p 57

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²² Anu. Sū. 131.

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²³ Nisī. Cū., 9, p 511

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²⁴ Vya. Bhā., 10 28, Sūy., 4. 2. 12.

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²⁵ Uvā., 2, p. 23, Sūy., 4 7, 12.

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Seventeen kinds of grains are mentioned :—rice (*vrīhi*), barley (*yava*), *masūra* (*Ervum Hirsutum*), wheat (*godhūma*), *mudga* (*Phraseolus*), sesame (*tila*), gram (*canaka*), *anu* (*Panicum Miliaceum*), *priyaṅgu* (panic seeds), *kodrava*, (*Paspalum Scrobiculatum*), *akusthaka* (mod. *kuttu*), rice (*śāli*),²⁶ a pulse (*āḍhaki*), *kalaya* (leguminous seeds), *kulattha* (*Dolichos Uniflorus*) and *sana* (*Linum Usitatissimum*).²⁷ Amongst other field grain crops are mentioned *māsa*, (*Phraseolus Radialus*), *mpphava*,²⁸ *ālisandaga*,²⁹ *saḍina*, *palimanthaka*,³⁰ *atasī* (linseed), *kusumba* (safflower), *kaṅgu* (millet), *rālaga*, (the resin of *Shorea Rubusta*), *tuvarī* (*tuvar* in Hindi), *koḍusā* (or *kodrava*) and mustard (*sarṣava*).³¹ The storers of crores and crores of kumbhas of these grains in their granary were called *nāyatikas*.³²

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²⁶ *Śāli* was a high quality of rice, cf *Piṇḍa Nir*, 162-5

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²⁷ *Bṛh Bhā*, 1 828, *Sūtra*, 2 1, also *Paṇṇa* 1 23-40 Instead of *anu*, *priyaṅgu*, *akusthaka*, *āḍhaki* and *kalāya* the *Vyavahāra Bhā* (1, p 132) gives *rālaga*, *māsa ravala*, *tuvar* and *niṣpāva*, (also *Das* cu p 212, cf *Arthaśāstra* p 128f, also *Milindapañha*, p 267, *Mārkaṇḍeya* p. 244)

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²⁸ It is also called *ralla* (a kind of wheat, Monier Williams *Sanskrit-English Dictionary*) and it produced intoxication (*Bṛh Bhā*, 5 6049) Jacobi renders it as *Dolichos Sinensis*, *Jain Sūtras*, xlv, p 374

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²⁹ According to Weber it was a grain coming from Alexandria, and hence points to commercial intercourse with that country, *Sacred Literature of the Jains*, p 38.

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³⁰ *Bhag* 21. 2

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³¹ *ibid*, 21 3, also *Uttrā Ṭī* 3 p 58a *Koḍu.aka* is mentioned as a best corn in the *Mahābhārata* (III 193 19)

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³² *Vya. Bhā* 1, p 131a

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Among the spices mention is made of fresh ginger (*śuṅgavera*),³³ dry ginger (*suntha*), cloves (*lavaṅga*), turmeric (*haridrā*), cumin (*vesana*, com. *jīraka*),³⁴ pepper (*marīca*), *pippala* (long pepper) and mustard (*sarṣavatha*).³⁵

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³³ *Bhag* 8 3, *Paṇṇa*., 1 23 31, 43-4

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³⁴ *Piṇḍa Nir*, 54

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³⁵ *Ācā*. II, 1 8 268.

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Sugar-cane (*ucchu*) seems to have been a common crop. A sugar-cane store-house (*ucchughara*) is mentioned in Dasapura³⁶ The sugar-cane press (*mahājanta. kolluka*)³⁷ is also mentioned. There were sheds for pressing sugar-cane (*jantāsālā*).³⁸ *Jantapilana* was a profession that dealt in crushing sugar-cane, sesamum and other articles by machines³⁹ Puṇḍravardhana was noted for sugar-cane's crop.⁴⁰ Three varieties of sugar are mentioned, viz., *maccandikā*, *pupphottara* and *paumuttara*⁴¹ Gourds were grown⁴² and were used by the ascetics⁴³.

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³⁶ *Uttarā Ṭī* 2, p 23

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³⁷ *Uttarā Sū* 19 53, *Bṛh Bhā* pi 575

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³⁸ *Vya Bhā* 10 484

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³⁹ *Uvā* 1, r. 11, *Jambu Ṭī* 3, p 193a

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⁴⁰ *Taṇḍula Ṭī*, p. 2 a In Bengal there were two kinds of sugar-cane, the pale-yellow or *puṇḍra* and the dark purple or black called *kājali* or *kajoli* The former gave its name to the province of Puṇḍadeśa to the east of the Ganges, and latter to Kajolaka, or the province to the west of the Ganges, *Arch Survey of India* (*Report* 1879-80, Bihar and Bengal), Vol XV, 1882, p 28

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⁴¹ *Nāyā*, 17, p 203 *Paṇṇa Sū* 17 227 *Maṭsyaṇḍikā* and *khaṇḍaśarkarā* are mentioned, in the *Arthaśāstra* (p 100) and the *Caraka*, ch 27, p 795, and are rendered as granulated sugar and sugar-candy respectively *Puṣpottara* is mentioned in the *Vaidyakaśabda Sindhu* and is rendered by *Puṣpaśarkarā*, which is perhaps the same as '*phūlsākar*' in Gujarati. *Padmottara* probably was prepared from lotus (Bechardas, *Bhag.āri Mahāvīra ni dharmakathāo*, p. 249f) It is translated as *Carthamus Tinctorius* by Monier Williams,

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⁴² *Uttarā Ṭī*, 5, p 103.

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⁴³ *Bṛh. Bhā.*, 1 2886.

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Among fibre-yielding plants cotton (*kappāsa*) was the most important⁴⁴ Among other kinds of fabrics silk, wool (*unniya*), linen (*khoma*) and hemp (*sana*) may be mentioned.⁴⁵ *Sālī* or *sālmali* trees which yielded a silky fibre were known.⁴⁶

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⁴⁴ Cf *Uttarā Ṭī* 4 p 78a

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⁴⁵ See *infra*, chapter on Dress

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⁴⁶ *Panna* 1 23 30, *Uttarā*, 10 52, *Sūya*, 6 18.

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Probably indigo (*gulya*)⁴⁷ and such other chemical dyes were produced; the mention of a variety of colours⁴⁸ leads us to believe in their existence.

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⁴⁷ *Nāyā*, 1, p 10

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⁴⁸ *Kiṇha*, *nīla*, *lohiya* *haladda* and *sukilla* are mentioned (*Rāya*, 3, p 20)

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Betel (*tambola*)⁴⁹ and arecca-nut (*pūyaphli*)⁵⁰ were known. A large number of vegetables were grown Brinjal, cucumber, radish, *pālanka* (mod *pālak*), karella (mod. *karelā*), tuber roots (*āluga*), water-nuts (*śṛṅgātaka*, mod. *siṅghodā*), onion, garlic⁵¹ and gourd⁵² may be mentioned Vegetable-gardens (*kaccha*) were known where radish, cucumber etc., were grown⁵³.

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⁴⁹ *Uvā*, 1, p 9

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⁵⁰ *Panna*, 1. 23 35

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⁵¹ *ibid*, 1 23 18-9, 26ff, 37-8, 43ff, *Uttarā* *Sū*, 36 90 ff

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⁵² *Nāyā*, 10, p 163

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⁵³ *Ācā* II 3 3 350

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Despite these precautions, famines occured mainly on account of scarcity of rain We have referred to a long famine which broke out in Pāṭaliputta during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya. Uttarāpatha was visited by another famine during the time of Vairasāmi⁵⁴ Still another famine is mentioned in Dakkhināvaha which is said to have lasted for a long time.⁵⁵ The *Vyavahāra Bhāṣya* preserves a tradition of still another famine in Kosala when a certain *śrāvaka*, who had hoarded plenty of grain, did not allow the five hundred Jain monks to leave the country during the famine Later on, however, when the prices of grain went up he sold his grain and the *sādhus* for want of food committed suicide and were devoured by vultures⁵⁶ During famine people even sold their children⁵⁷

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⁵⁴ *Ava* *cū*, p 396

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⁵⁵ *ibid*, p 404

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⁵⁶ *Vya* *Bhā*, 10 557-60

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⁵⁷ *Mahā* *Ni*, p 28

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The failure of crops or scarcity of food was also due to floods which caused severe distress to the people. The *Titthogāli* gives a graphic description of the flood in Pāṭaliputta which created havoc.⁵⁸ The flood in Kāṅcanapura is recorded in the *Vyavahāra Bhāṣya*⁵⁹. The destruction of Śrāvasti due to frequent overflowing of Acirāvatī is mentioned⁶⁰.

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⁵⁸ Kalyan Vijaya Vīra Nirvāṇa, p 42. ff

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⁵⁹ 10. 450

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⁶⁰ See *infra*, Section V under Kuṇālā.

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