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History of Dharmashastra (Ancient and Mediaeval Religious and Civil Law in India) v1.c6.s20: 33. The Purāṇas

History of Dharmaśāstra (Ancient and Mediaeval Religious and Civil Law in India) v1.c6.s20

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33. The Purāṇas

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The Purāṇas as a class of literature existed from very ancient times. Tai. Ār. (II. 10) speaks of “Brāhmaṇas, Itihāsas, Purāṇas, and Nārāśaṁsī gāthās.” In the Chāndogya Upaniṣad (VII. 1. 2 and 4) “itihāsa-purāṇa” is spoken of as the fifth Veda and the Bṛha-dāraṇyaka (IV. 1. 2) speaks of “Itihāsa and Purāṇa.” The Gau-tama Dh. S. (8. 6 and 11. 19) refers to “itihāsa” and “Purāṇa.” It is not unlikely that there was originally a single work called Purāṇa. The words of the Matsya that in former ages there was a single Purāṇa probably embody a tradition that has a substratum of truth. The Mahābhāṣya of Patañjali (vol. I. page 9.) speaks of Purāṇa in the singular. The Āp. Dh. S. quotes the views of a Purāṇa, twice cites two verses from a Purāṇa, and summarizes the view of a Bhaviṣyat-purāṇa. The quotations show that the Purāṇa or Purāṇas contained verses and were composed in a somewhat archaic language. The extant Purāṇas are recasts made of the ancient Purāṇas during the first centuries of the Christian era, when there was a revival and restatement of the ancient Brahmanical religion, philosophy and literature after the onslaughts of Buddhism and Jainism had abated in their strength and fury. The Mahābhārata (Vana. 191. 16) speaks of the Purāṇa promulgated by Vāyu (i. e. the Vāyupurāṇa). Bāṇa in his Harṣacarita refers to the recitation of the Vāyupurāṇa. Kumārilabhaṭṭa in his Tantravārtika (vide J. B. B. R. A. S. for 1925, p. 122) refers to the subjects dealt with by many of the extant purāṇas and quotes passages that occur in the Viṣṇu and Mārkaṇḍeya purāṇas. Thus it is clear that at any rate some of the extant purāṇas, if not all, are much earlier than the 6th century A. D.

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³⁰³ ब्राह्मणानीतिहास..न् पुराणानि कल्पान्गाथा नाराशंसीः &c.

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³⁰⁴ पुराणमेकमेवासीत् तदा कल्पान्तरेऽनघ । मत्स्यपुराण chap. 53 (Ānandāśrama ed.).

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³⁰⁵ यो हिंसार्थमभिक्रान्तं हन्ति मन्युरेव मन्युं स्पृशति न तस्मिन् दोष इति पुराणे । आप. ध. सू. I. 10. 29. 7; अथ पुराणे श्लोकावुदाहरन्ति । उद्यतामाहृतां भिक्षां पुरस्तादप्रवेदिताम् । भोज्यां मेने प्रजापतिरपि दुष्कृतकारिणः ॥ न तस्य पितरोऽश्नन्ति दश वर्षाणि पञ्च च । न च हव्यं वहत्यग्निरस्तनामभ्यधिमन्यते ॥ इति । आप. ध. सू. I. 6. 19. 13; अथ पुराणे श्लोकावुदाहरन्ति । अशीतिसहस्राणि ये प्रजामीषिरर्षयः । दक्षिणेनार्यम्णः पन्थानं ते श्मशानानि भेजिरे ॥ अशीती... प्रजां नेषिरर्षयः । उत्तरेणार्यम्णः पन्थानं तेऽमृतत्वं हि कल्पते ॥ आप. ध. सू. II. 9. 23. 3; पुनः सर्गे बीजाार्था भवन्तीति भविष्यत्पुराणे । आप. ध. सू. II. 9. 24. 6.

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The orthodox number of the principal purāṇas is 18 and there are 18 Upapurāṇas also. There is considerable divergence about the names of the 18 principal purāṇas. For example, the Matsyapurāṇa (chap. 53) enumerates them as follows:—Brāhma, Padma, Viṣṇu, Vāyu, Bhāgavata, Nāradīya, Mārkaṇḍeya, Āgneya, Bhaviṣya, Brahmavaivarta, Liṅga, Varāha, Skanda, Vāmana, Kūrma, Matsya, Garuḍa and Brahmāṇḍa. The Viṣṇu-purāṇa (3.6) on the other hand omits Vāyu from the above list and adds Śaiva. The Sarasvatīvilāsa (p. 14) follows the Viṣṇu-purāṇa. Vide Bhāgavata-purāṇa XII. 13. 4-8 and commentary thereon for the Purāṇas and Upapurāṇas.

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Among comparatively early commentators and writers of digests, it is Aparārka, Ballālasena and Hemādri that quote most profusely from the purāṇas as sources of dharma. We saw above (p. 146) that Kullūka describes passages of the Bhaviṣya-purāṇa as glosses on Manu. The Matsya-purāṇa is pre-eminently a work containing much dharmaśāstra material. For example, chapters 16-22 deal with śrāddha, chapters 55-57 and 59-82 with vratas, chap. 54, 83, 278 with gifts, chap. 93 with śāntis, chap. 102 with tīrthas. Similarly in chapters 216-243 the Matsya speaks of rājadharma. The Viṣṇupurāṇa (in III, chap. 8-16) contains a good deal of information on the duties of the varṇas and āśramas, nitya and naimittika acts, good manners for a householder, the five great yajñas, Jātakarma and other saṁskāras, impu[rity] on death, śrāddha &c. Viṣṇudharmottara (Veṅkaṭeśvara Press) [in th]e 2nd khaṇḍa contains several chapters dealing with matters of dharma, e. g. chap. 24 gives the qualifications of state officers, chap. 65-72 speak of rājadharma, expedients of policy, punishments, 73-74 deal with prāyaścittas, 75 with impurity on death and birth, 79 with purification of dravyas, 80-81 with the four varṇas and mixed castes, 60 with various purely legal matters. The Agnipurāṇa also in chapters 220-225, 227, 233-242 contains a disquisition on rājadharma. Almost the whole of the vyavahāra section in the Yājñavalkyasmṛti occurs in chapters 253-258 of the Agnipurāṇa (Ānandāśrama edition) and many verses in chap. 253 are identical with verses of the Nārada-smṛti. The Garuḍapurāṇa (chap. 93-106) contains about 400 verses that are taken from the first and third sections of Yājñavalkya though not in the same order.

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The chronology of the purāṇas is, like that of the epics, a subject full of perplexing problems and is hence passed over here.

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The annexed table will give an idea as to what topics of dharmaśāstra are dealt with in the principal purāṇas.

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The constitution of the original text of the purāṇas is a Herculean task which has not yet been attempted. Not only is there difference of opinion among the purāṇas about the names of the 18 Mahā-Purāṇas, but there is divergence as regards the extent of the several purāṇas. For example, the commentator Viṣṇucitta of the Viṣṇupurāṇa says (on III. 6. 20-22) that the extent of the Viṣṇupurāṇa is variously given at 8000, 9000, 10000, 22000, 24000, but that he comments on a text of 6000 ślokas only. The Agnipurāṇa (272. 10-11) says that it contains 12000 ślokas, while the Bhāgavata (XII. 13), the Brahmavaivarta, the Padma (ādi. 62) say that it contains 15400 ślokas and the Skanda (V. 3) and the Matsya 53 give the extent of the Agni as 16000. The Kūrma, according to the Bhāgavata contains 17000, according to the Matsya 18000 and only 8000 according to the Agni (272. 19). Though there is a remarkable continuity in India as to religious thoughts and practices, yet the popular religion of modern Hindus is pre-eminently paurāṇic. The purāṇas contain thousands of ślokas on dharmaśāstra matters, they are a rich mine awaiting exploration by careful students of social and religious questions and shed a flood of light on the development of religious beliefs and practices in medieval and modern India. Therefore the re-constitution of the text of the purāṇas is a problem will have to be tackled in the near future. Besides the several purāṇas, eighteen Upapurāṇas also are enumerated in some of the Purāṇas. Vide Garuḍa (223. 17 ff), Skanda (V. 3. chap. I. 45-62 and VII. I. chap. 2), Padma (Pātāla-khaṇḍa chap. 111. 95-98) and Matsya (53. 59 ff) for Upapurāṇas.305a Besides the Mahāpurāṇas and Upapurāṇas, there are other works of the purāṇa class such as Gaṇeśa, Maudgala, Devī, Kalki &c. The Padmapurāṇa (Uttara-khaṇḍa chap. 263) divides the 18 purāṇas into three groups, *sāttvika*, *rājasa* and *tāmasa*, and says that the Viṣṇu, Nāradīya, Bhāgavata, Garuḍa, Padma, and Varāha are *sāttvika*. The Matsya (53) also speaks of this division. The Liṅgapurāṇa (39. 63-66) speaks of the twenty expounders of dharma just as Yājñavalkya does and quotes the two verses in the form in which the Mit. presents them (and not Viśvarūpa), while the Padma (Uttarakhanda 263. 86-89) divides the eighteen smṛtis into three groups of *sattvika*, *rājasa* and *tāmasa*.305b It would be quite clear to any reader of the purāṇas and the smṛtis that most of the former in their extant form are later than the smṛtis of Manu, Yājñavalkya, Parāśara, Nārada &c.

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305a अन्यान्युपपुराणानि मुनिभिः कथितानि तु । आद्यं सनत्कुमारोक्तं नारसिंहमथापरम् ॥ तृतीयं स्कान्द-(नान्द ?)मुद्दिष्टं कुमारेण तु भाषितम् । चतुर्थ शिवधर्माख्यं स्यान्नन्दीश्वरभाषितम् ॥ दुर्वाससोक्तमाश्चर्यं नारदोक्तमतः परम् । कापिलं वामनं चैव तथैवोशनसेरितम् ॥ ब्रह्माण्डं वारुणं चाथ कालिकाद्वयमेव च । माहेश्वरं तथा साम्बं सौरं सर्वार्थसंचयम् । पराशरोक्तमपरं मारीचं भार्गवाह्वयम् ॥ गरुड. 223. 17-20.

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305b वासिष्ठं चैवं हारीतं व्यासं पाराशरं तथा । भारद्वाजं काश्यपं च सात्त्विका मुक्तिदाः शुभाः ॥ याज्ञवल्क्यं तथात्रेयं तैत्तिरं दाक्षमेव च । कात्यायनं वैष्णवं च राजसाः स्वर्गदाः शुभाः ॥ गौतमं बार्हस्पत्यं च सांवर्तं च यमं स्मृतम् । शाङ्खं चौशनसं देवि तामसा निरयप्रदाः ॥.

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The following table will give some idea as to how the eighteen principal purāṇas are rich in dharmaśāstra material. Besides the eighteen principal purāṇas, the Kālikā-purāṇa (Veṅkaṭeśvara press ed.) and the Saura-purāṇa (Ānandāśrama ed.) have been drawn upon. The Ānandāśrama edition of the Agni and Padma, the Nirṇayasāgara edition (1905) of the Bhāgavata, the Poona edition (1870 Jagaddhitecchu Press) of the Matsya have been referred to here and the Veṅkateśvara editions of all the other purāṇas.

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*Ācāra*—Brahma 113; Garuḍa 50; Kālikā 88; Kūrma (uttarārdha) 13; Liṅga (pūrvārdha) 89; Mārkaṇḍeya 31; Nārada (pūrvārdha) 26; Padma (Ādi 52-56, pātālakhaṇḍa 9, sṛṣṭikhaṇḍa 46); Skanda I (Kaumārikā 41), III. (dharmāraṇya 6), IV. I (pūrvārdha 38, 40); Śiva (kailāsasaṁhitā) chap. 18-20 (on ācāra of yati, making of a disciple; yogapaṭṭa); Vāyu 16; Viṣṇu III. 11-12.

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*Āhnika*—Agni 155; Brahmavaivarta (Brahmakhaṇḍa) 26; Garuḍa 50 and 213-217; Kūrma (uttarārdha) 18-19; Liṅga 26; Mārkaṇḍeya 27; Nārada (pūrvārdha) 27; Padma (sṛṣṭi 46, uttara 233); Skanda IV. I (pūrvārdha) chap. 35 and III. 2 (dharmāraṇya-khaṇḍa) chap. 5.

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*Āśauca*—Agni 157-158 (both kinds, on death and birth); Brahma 113 (on birth); Garuḍa (preta-khaṇḍa) chap. 5, Kūrma (uttarārdha chap. 23); Liṅga (pūrvārdha 89).

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*Āśramadharmas*—Agni 160-161; Bhāgavata VII. 12 and 13, XI. 17; Brahma 114; Garuḍa 49; Kūrma (uttarārdha) 14-16 (brahmacārin and gṛhastha) and 27-28 (vānaprastha and yati); Mārkaṇḍeya 25-26; Nārada (pūrvārdha 27 and 43); Padma (ādikhaṇḍa 58-60 for vānaprastha and yati, bhūmikhaṇḍa 59 for gṛhastha, sṛṣṭikhaṇḍa 15); Saura 17, 20 (vānaprastha and saṁnyāsin); Skanda IV. I (pūrvārdha) chap. 41 (vānaprastha and yati); Viṣṇu III. 9.

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*Bhakṣyābhakṣya*—Brahmavaivarta (brahmakhaṇḍa 27, 4th khaṇḍa, uttarārdha chap. 85); Kūrma (uttarārdha chap. 17); Padma (ādikhaṇḍa 56).

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*Brāhmaṇa*—vide under *varṇadharmas*; greatness of -Padma (brahmakhaṇḍa chap. 14 and sṛṣṭikhaṇḍa chap. 45); duties of -Kūrma (uttarārdha chap. 12 and 19); Saura 18; who is a worthy-Padma (sṛṣṭi 15); means of livelihood for -Kūrma (uttarārdha 25), Padma (sṛṣṭi 45).

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*Dāna*—vide under *pratiṣṭhā* and *utsarga*. Agni 209-213 (mahādānas); Bhaviṣya IV. 150 ff; Brahma 109 (specially annadāna); Brahmavaivarta (prakṛtikhaṇḍa 27); Garuḍa 51; Kūrma, uttarārdha 26 (4 kinds, nitya, naimittika, kāmya, vimala); Liṅga, uttarārdha 28 (16 *mahādānas*); Matsya 81-91, 205-206, 274-289 (16 *mahādānas*); Nārada (pūrvārdha 13 and 31, uttarārdha 41-42); Padma (ādi 57, bhūmikhaṇḍa 39-40 and 94, brahmakhaṇḍa 24, sṛṣṭi 45 on godāna and 75, uttara 27 on annadāna, 28 and 33 ); Saura 9-10; Śiva (Umāsaṁhitā chap. 11 and 14); Skanda I (Kaumârikā-khaṇḍa 2 for names of famous donors), III. 2 (dharmāraṇya 34 ), VII. I. 5 and 208; Varāha 99-111.

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*Dravyaśuddhi*—Agni 156; Bhāgavata XI. 21; Brahma 113; Liṅga (pūrvārdha 89); Mārkaṇḍeya 32.

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*Gotra and Pravara*—Matsya 194-201; Skanda III. 2 (dharmāraṇya-khaṇḍa) 9.

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*Kalisvarūpa*—vide under *Yugadharmas*.

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Brahma 122-123; Brahmāṇḍa (anuṣaṅgapāda chap. 31 ); Brahmavaivarta (prakṛtikhaṇḍa 7 ); Kūrma 30; Liṅga 40; Nāradīya (pūrvārdha 41 ); Skanda I (Kaumârikā-khaṇḍa chap. 40 and 218-248), II (puruṣottamamāhAtmya chap. 39 ), VI. 272; Vāyu I. 58.

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*Kalivarjya*—Nārada (pūrvārdha chap. 24).

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*Karmavipāka*—Brahma 108; Brahmavaivarta (prakṛtikhaṇḍa 26 and 28 and 4th khaṇḍa uttarārdha 85); Mārkaṇḍeya 15; Padma (Brahma-khaṇḍa 5, pātālakhaṇḍa 48); Vāmana 12.

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*akas*—vide under *patakas*.

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Agni 203 and 371; Brahma 20 (25 names given), 105 (22 names); Brahmavaivarta, prakṛtikhaṇḍa 29 (for names of 86 narakakuṇḍas) and 33; Padma (uttara, chap. 227 for names of 140); Śiva (umāsaṁhitā chap. 8 for 28 narakas and chap. 16); Skanda I (kaumârikā-khaṇḍa 39 ), VI. 226-227, Viṣṇu I. 6. and II. 6.

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*Nīti*—*vide* under *rājadharma*. Garuḍa 108-114 (summary of Bṛhaspati-nīti ) and 115 (summary of Śaunaka).

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*Pātakas*—*vide* under *prāyaścitta* Agni 168 (mahāpātakas and lesser sins); Brahma 20 and 105-106; Mārkaṇḍeya 12-14; Nārada (pūrvārdha 15); Śiva (umāsaṁhitā 5 for mahāpātakas and 6 for upapātakas).

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*Pratiṣṭhā*—Agni 38-106 (building and consecration of temples, idols of Viṣṇu &c); Garuḍa 45-48, Padma (uttarakhaṇḍa chap. 122 and 127 for Śālagrāma); Matsya 258-270; Śiva I (vidyeśvara-saṁhitā chap. 11).

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*Prāyaścitta*—Agni 170-174; Brahmāṇḍa (upasaṁhārapāda chap. 8); Garuḍa 52 (specially for *mahāpatakas*) and 222; Kūrma, uttarārdha 30-34; Liṅga 90 (for lapses of *yatis*); Nārada, pūrvārdha 14 and 30; Padma (brahma-khaṇḍa 18-19); Saurā 52; Varāha 68 (for *agamyāgamana*), 131-136 (for various lapses), 179; Vāyu (pūrvārdha 18 for lapses of *yati*).

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*Rājadharma*—Agni 220-242; Kālikā 87; Mārkaṇḍeya 24; Matsya 216-227, 240

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*Saṁskāra*—*vide* under *Vivāha* also. Agni 153-154 and 166; Bhaviṣya I (Brāhmaparva chap. 3-4 and 7); Nārada, pūrvārdha 25-26; Skanda IV. I (pūrvārdha 36 and 38); Viṣṇu III. 10.

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*Śānti*—Agni 149, 164, 167, 259-268, 290-91, 320-324; Bhaviṣya IV chap. 141 ff; Brahmavaivarta IV (uttarārdha chap. 82); Matsya 92-93 and 228-239

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*Śrāddhas*—Agni 117 (according to Kātyāyana) and 163; Brahma 110-113, Brahmāṇḍa (upodghātapāda 9-20); Kūrma, uttarārdha 20-22; Mārkaṇḍeya 27-30; Liṅga, uttarārdha 45 (*jīvat-śrāddha*); Matsya 16-22; Nārada, pūrvārdha 128; Padma (*pātālakhaṇḍa* 101, sṛṣṭi 9-11 and 47); Śiva (kailāsasaṁhita 21-23) (about after-death rites of *yati*); Saura 19; Skanda VI. 215-225 and VII. I. chap. 205-207; Varāha 13-14 and 187-188; Vāyu (uttarārdha chap. 10-21); Viṣṇu III. 13-16,

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*Strīdharma*—Bhāgavata VII. 11; Bhaviṣya I chap. 11-15; Brahmavaivarta (brahmakhaṇḍa 9 about greatness of *pati*, 4th khaṇḍa, uttarārdha 83 (about *pativratā*); Padma (bhūmikhaṇḍa 41, pātāla 102, sṛṣṭi 47 and 49, uttara 234 (duties of wife and co-wives); Śiva (rudrasaṁhitā, Pārvatīkhaṇḍa 54); Skanda III. 2. (dharmāraṇyakhaṇḍa 7).

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*Tīrtha*—Agni 109-116; Bhāgavata VII. 14; Brahma 23, 26 (Koṇārka in Orissa), 39 (Ekāmra), 40-48 (Jagannātha), 54 (Mahākāla at Ujjayinī); Garuḍa 81-86; Kūrma, pūrvārdha 31-35 (Benares), 36-38 (Prayāga), uttarārdha 35-44; Liṅga, pūrvārdha 92; Matsya 179-183 and 188-193; Nāradīya, uttarārdha 39-40 (Gaṅgāsnāna), 45-47 (Gayā), 48-49 (Benares), 50 (Śivaliṅgas), 52-61 (Jagannātha), 62-81 (numerous tīrthas); Padma I. 13-49, Padma, bhūmikhaṇḍa 90 and 92, sṛṣṭikhaṇḍa 14-15 and 18-19, 60, uttarakhaṇḍa 2, 20-25, 113, 129 (numerous tīrthas named), 130-169, 195; Saura 67; Śiva I. 12 (koṭirudrasaṁhitā 1-2, 8-33); Skanda I. (aruṇācala-māhātmya, pūrvārdha 2), II (puruṣottamamāhātmya 1-49 ); II. Badarīkā-māhātmya 1-8; III. 1; III 2. 31; V. 3 (Revākhaṇḍa is full of tīrthas in 232 chapters ) and also VI and VII; Vāmana 33-42 and 50; Varāha 141-176; Vāyu, uttarārdha 43-50 (Gayā).

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*Tithi*—*vide* under *vratas* also. Brahma 120 (ekādaśī); Nārada, pūrvārdha 29 (what tithi should be taken, *paraviddhā* or *pūrvaviddhā*); Nārada, uttarārdha 2; Padma, brahmakhaṇḍa 13 (janmāṣṭamī), 15 (ekādaśī); Saura 51; Varāha 23-35 (all tithis from 1st to amāvāsyā).

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*Utsarga*—(works of public utility such as tanks and wells, parks, prapās &c.)--*vide* under *dāna* and *pratiṣṭhā*. Bhaviṣya II; Nārada, pūrvārdha 13; Padma, sṛṣṭi 54-56, uttara 28; Śiva (Vidyeśvarasaṁhitā 11).

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*Varṇadharmas* — Agni 151; Bhāgavata VII. 11. and XI. 17; Brahma 114-115; Garuḍa 49; Mārkaṇḍeya 25; Nārada, pūrvārdha 24, 43, 59, 70; Skanda VI. 242; Viṣṇu III. 8. mixed castes-Brahmavaivarta (Brahmakhaṇḍa 10).

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*Vivāha*—*vide* under *saṁskāra*. Padma, uttara 223 and 232; Skanda IV, pūrvārdha 38.

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*Vrata*—Agni 175-200, 204 (upavāsa); Bhaviṣya I. 17 ff, IV (several hundred vratas); Brahma 27 (upavāsa); Brahmavaivarta (4th khaṇḍa, pūrvārdha 8 and 26); Garuḍa 116-137, Liṅga, pūrvārdha 83-84; Nārada, pūrvārdha 17-22, 110-124; Matsya 54-80, 94-100; Padma (bhūmi 87, brahmakhaṇḍa 3-4, 7, 11, 13, 15-16, 21-23, pātālakhaṇḍa 86-96, 108, sṛṣṭi 20-24, 31, 76, 79-82, uttara 26, 31-32, 35-65, 66-71, 78, 85, 97, 125, 170, 240-41, 262; Skanda I. (kedāra 33), II. 4. 1-36, II. 5 and 7, V. I. 60-61, VI. 232-241; Śiva (Koṭirudrasaṁhitā 38-40, Umāsaṁhitā 51): Varāha 39-65.

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*Vyavahāra* — Agni 253--258; Skanda I. (Kaumârikākhaṇḍa) 44(eight ordeals described).

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*Yugadharmas*—*vide* also under *Kalisvarūpa*.

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Garuḍa 223; Liṅga 39; Matsya 141-143, 164; Nārada, pūryārdha 41; Skanda VI. 272; Vāyu I. 32 and 58.

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