Pramāṇa · Search · About · API

History of Dharmashastra (Ancient and Mediaeval Religious and Civil Law in India) v3.c45: Chapter XXVII. Vānaprastha (forest hermit)

History of Dharmaśāstra (Ancient and Mediaeval Religious and Civil Law in India) v3.c45

Language
English

Chapter XXVII. Vānaprastha (forest hermit)

v3.c45.2

Vaikhānasa appears to have been the ancient name for Vānaprastha. In the Anukramaṇī one hundred Vaikhānasas are said to have been the seers of Ṛg. IX. 66 and a Vāmra Vaikhānasa is the seer of Ṛg. X. 99. The Tai. Ā. I. 23 connects the word Vaikhānasa with the *nakhas* of Prajāpati (ye nakhās te vaikhānasāḥ).²¹¹⁵ It appears that in ancient times there was some work called Vaikhānasa śāstra which treated of the rules for forest hermits. Gaut. III. 2 uses the word Vaikhānasa for this āśrama. Baud. Dh. S. II. 6. 19 defines a vānaprastha²¹¹⁶ as one who follows the practices laid down in Vaikhānasa-śāstra. Vṛddha-Gautama (chap. VIII, p. 564) appears to suggest that Vaikhānasas and Pāñcarātrikas were two schools of Vaiṣṇavas, the former calling Viṣṇu by the appellations of Puruṣa, Acyuta and Aniruddha, while the Pāñcarātrikas spoke of Viṣṇu as having the four *mūrtis* or *vyūhas* viz. Vāsudeva, Saṅkarṣaṇa, Pradyumna and Aniruddha.²¹¹⁷ The Par. M. vol. I, part 2, p. 139 after quoting Vas. Dh. S. 9. 11 (śrāmaṇakenāgnimādhaya) remarks that Śrāmaṇaka is Vaikhānasa-sūtra that propounds the duties of *tapasvins*. Kālidāsa in the Śākuntala speaks of the life led by the charming Śakuntalā in Kaṇva's hermitage as *vaikhānasa vrata*²¹¹⁸ (I. 27). Manu VI. 21 describes the Vānaprastha as abiding by the views (*mata*) of Vaikhānasa and Medhātithi explains that Vaikhānasa is a śāstra in which the duties of the forest hermit are expounded. The Mahā- bhārata²¹¹⁹ (Śānti 20. 6 and 26. 6) states that the view of the Vaikhānasa is that it is better to have no desire for amassing wealth than to hanker after wealth. Śaṅkarācārya on Vedāntasūtra III. 4. 20 speaks of the third āśrama as vaikhānasa and as indicated by the word *tapas* used in Chān. Up. II. 23. 1.

v3.c45.3

²¹¹⁵ ये नखास्ते वैखानसाः । ये वालास्ते बालखिल्याः। तै. आ. I. 23.

v3.c45.4

²¹¹⁶ वानप्रस्थो वैखानसशास्त्रसमुदाचारः। बौ. ध. सू. II. 6. 19.

v3.c45.5

²¹¹⁷ पुरुषं च ततः सूक्तमच्युतं च युधिष्ठिर । अनिरुद्धं च मां प्राहुर्वैखानसविदो जनाः ॥ अन्ये त्वेवं विजानन्ति मां राजन् पाञ्चरात्रिकाः । वासुदेवं च राजेन्द्र सङ्कर्षणमथापि वा । प्रद्युम्नं चानिरुद्धं च चतुर्मूर्ति प्रचक्षते ॥ वृद्धगौतम VIII. p. 564. These and other verses are quoted as from आश्वमेधिकपर्व by परा. मा. I. part 1 p. 366. अप्पय्यदीक्षित in his वेदान्तकल्पतरुपरिमल (Vijianagram Series) p. 453 tells us that, according to the वैखानसशास्त्र, the Pāñcarātra school is not Vaidika.

v3.c45.6

²¹¹⁸ वैखानसं किम नया व्रतमाप्रदानात् व्यापाररोधि मदनस्य निषेवितव्यम् । शाकुन्तल I. 27.

v3.c45.7

²¹¹⁹ वैखानसानां कौन्तेय श्रूयते वचनं यथा । ईहेत धनहेतोर्यस्तस्यानsecondaryहा गरीयसी ॥ शान्तिपर्व 20. 6–7.

v3.c45.8

The word *vānaprastha* is according to the Mit. the same as vanaprastha, which means 'one who stays in a forest in a pre-eminent way' (by observing a strict code of life). Kṣīrasvāmī derives it differently.²¹²⁰

v3.c45.9

²¹²⁰ वने प्रकर्षेण नियमेन च तिष्ठति चरतीति वनप्रस्थः वनप्रस्थ एव वानप्रस्थः संज्ञायां दीर्घम् । मिता० on या. III. 45. क्षीरस्वामी on वानप्रस्थ however says 'प्रतिष्ठन्ते अस्मिन् प्रस्थाः वनप्रस्थे भवो वानप्रस्थः वैखानसाख्यः.'

v3.c45.10

The time for becoming a forest hermit arises in two ways. According to the Jābālopaniṣad quoted above (p. 421) a man may become a vānaprastha immediately after the period of studenthood or after passing some years as an householder. Manu (VI. 2) indicates the age by saying 'when a householder sees his skin wrinkled and his hair growing white and sees the sons of his sons he may betake himself to the forest'. The commentators were divided in their opinions, some holding that all three conditions (wrinkles, grey hair and seeing son's sons) must be fulfilled before one could become a forest hermit, others held that only one of them need be fulfilled and others again said that these conditions are only indicative of the age viz. that a man must be old or over 50. Kullūka on Manu III. 50 quotes a smṛti 'a man may resort to a forest after 50'.

v3.c45.11

Gaut. III. 25-34, Āp. Dh. S. II. 9. 21. 18—II. 9. 23. 2, Baud. Dh. S. III. 3, Vas. Dh. S. IX, Manu VI. 1-32, Yāj. III. 45-55, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 95, Vaik. X. 5, Śaṅkha-smṛti VI. 1-7 (in verse), Śāntiparva 245. 1-14 and Anuśāsana 142, Aśvamedhika-parva 46. 9-16, Laghu-Viṣṇu III, Kūrmapurāṇa (uttarārdha chap. 27) contain numerous rules about forest hermits. The principal points are stated below with a few references:

v3.c45.12

(1) One may go to a forest with one's wife or one may leave her in charge of one's sons (Manu VI. 3, Yāj. III. 45). The wife may accompany if she desires. Medhātithi notes that some explained that if the wife was young he may place her in charge of the sons and that an old wife may accompany her husband.

v3.c45.13

(2) He takes with him to the forest his three Vedic fires and his gṛhya fire²¹²¹ together with such sacrificial utensils as the ladles called *sruc, sruva*. Ordinarily the wife's co-operation is required in offering sacrifices, but when the wife is given in charge of the sons, her co-operation then is supposed to be dispensed with or it may be held that she has consented to all acts by agreeing to stay with the sons. On repairing to the forest he should perform the śrauta sacrifices of new moon and full moon, the *āgrayaṇa iṣṭi*, the *cāturmāsyas, Turāyaṇa* and *Dākṣāyaṇa* (Manu VI. 4, 9-10, Yāj. III. 45). The sacrificial food was to be prepared from corn like *nīvāra* growing in the forest. It appears that according to some writers the forest hermit was to give up his śrauta and gṛhya fires and kindle a new fire in accordance with rules laid down in the *śrāmaṇaka*²¹²² (i. e. the Vaikhānasa sūtra) and offer sacrifices therein. Vide Gaut. III. 26, Āp. Dh. S. II. 9. 21. 20 and Vas. Dh. S. IX. 10.²¹²³

v3.c45.14

²¹²¹ If he has followed the *ardhādhāna* mode, then he has separate śrauta and gṛhya fires; but if he has followed the 'sarvādhāna' mode, then he has only śrauta fires, which alone he takes with him. When a man consecrates the three śrauta fires he may do so with half of his smārta fire and keep the other half of the smārta fire. This is ardhādhāna. If he does not keep the *smārta* fire separate it is sarvādhāna. Vide Āp. Śr. V. 4. 12-16, V. 7. 8 and Nirṇayasindhu (III pūrvārdha, p. 370). If he has no śrauta fires then he takes only the gṛhya fire. One who has no wife living can also become a forest hermit. Vide Mit. on Yāj. III. 45. Dākṣāyaṇa is 'a modification of the Darśapūrṇamāsa sacrifice (Āp. Śr. III. 17. 4 and 11, Āśv. Śr. II. 14. 7ff and com. on Kāt. Śr. I. 2. 11) and Turāyaṇa is an iṣṭyayana according to Āśv. Śr. II. 14. 4-6 and a sattra according to Āp. XXIII. 14. 1.

v3.c45.15

²¹²² Medhātithi on Manu VI. 9 states that the Śrāmaṇaka fire is to be kindled by him only whose wife is dead or who becomes a forest hermit immediately after the close of the period of student-hood.

v3.c45.16

²¹²³ श्रावणेनाग्निमाधाय । गौ. III. 26; श्रामणकेनाग्निमाधायाहिताग्निः ...... स्यात् । वसिष्ठ IX. 10. हरदत्त on गौ. explains 'श्रावणकं नाम वैखानसं शास्त्रम्'. These words occur also in Baud. Dh. S. II. 6.20. मेधातिथि explains that he is to swallow holy ashes in order to deposit fires in his self, while Nārāyaṇa explains that he is to do so by repeating the mantra 'Yā te agne yajñiyā' (Tai. S. III. 4. 10. 5). The Baud. Dh. S. II. 10. 30-31 refers to this 'भवतं नः समनसश्चिति आत्मन्यग्नीन्त्समरोपयते। या ते अग्ने यज्ञिया तनू-रिति त्रिभिरैौकं समाजिघ्रति ।।. The Vaik. IX. 1-5 details how a person on entering the order of vaikhānasas is to establish the śrāmaṇaka fire. At first it deals with the establishment of śrāmaṇka fire by one whose wife accompanies him and then by one whose wife does not accompany him and winds up सभ्यस्य भेदः श्रामणकाग्निरित्याहुः । तस्मादेतद्विधानमेनमग्निं च श्रामणकमित्याह विखनाः । अपत्नीकश्च भिक्षुवदग्नौ होमं हुत्वा ...... वने निवसेत् तपसां श्रमणतेन्मूलम् ।

v3.c45.17

Ultimately he is to leave the keeping of fires by depositing the sacred fires in his own self according to the rules prescribed (in Vaikhānasa sūtra). Vide Manu VI. 25, Yāj. III. 45.

v3.c45.18

(3) He has to give up all food that he used to partake of when he was in his village and also all household paraphernalia (cows, horses, beds &c.) and subsist on flowers, fruits, roots and vegetables growing in the forest on land or in water or on corn fit for sages such as nīvāra and śyāmāka (Manu VI. 5 and 13, Gaut. III. 26 and 28). But he has to avoid partaking of honey, flesh, mushrooms growing on the ground, and the vegetables called Bhūstṛṇa, Śigruka, the Śleṣmātaka fruit, though these are forest produce (Manu VI. 14). Gautama allowed him as a last resort to partake of the flesh of animals killed by carnivorous beasts. Yāj. III. 54-55, Manu VI. 27-28 allow him to beg for alms at the dwellings of other hermits or allow him to go to a village and bring by begging silently eight morsels of food. He can use salt prepared by himself only (Manu VI. 12).

v3.c45.19

(4) He has to perform the five daily sacrifices to gods, sages, Manes, men (guests) and to bhūtas with food fit for ascetics or with fruits, roots and vegetables and give alms thereout (Manu VI. 5 and 7, Gaut. III. 29-30, Yāj. III. 46).

v3.c45.20

(5) He has to bathe thrice in the day, in the morning, at noon and in the evening (Manu VI. 22 and 24, Yāj. III. 48, Vas. IX. 9); while Manu VI. 6 appears to prescribe a bath twice a day only in the morning and in the evening. So there was an option.

v3.c45.21

(6) He was to wear a deer-skin or a tattered garment (i.e. one of bark or kuśa grass or the like) and allow his hair and nails to grow. Vide Manu VI. 6, Gaut. III. 34, Vas. IX. 11.

v3.c45.22

(7) He should be devoted to the study of the Veda and recite it inaudibly (Āp. Dh. S. II 9. 22. 9, Manu VI. 8, Yāj. III. 48).

v3.c45.23

(8) He should live a life of complete continence, should be self-restrained, friendly (to all), collected in mind, ever liberal but never a recipient and be compassionate towards all beings (Manu VI. 8, Yāj. III. 45 and 48). In view of Yāj. III. 45, Vas. IX. 5 and Manu VI. 26, Kullūka seems²¹²⁴ to be wrong in holding that if a forest hermit takes his wife with him he may cohabit with her at the prescribed times.

v3.c45.24

²¹²⁴ वानप्रस्थो ब्रह्मचारी साग्निः सोपासनो व्रजेत् । या. III. 45; ऊर्ध्वरेताः। वासिष्ठ IX. 5.

v3.c45.25

(9) He is not to use corn growing on ploughed land in the forest even if the owner neglects to garner it nor is he to eat fruits and roots growing in villages (Manu VI. 16 and Yāj. III. 46).

v3.c45.26

(10) He may cook wild corn or he may eat only what becomes naturally ripe (like fruits) or he may pound between stones the grain to be used by him, or may employ his teeth only as mortar and he is not to employ ghee in his cooking or religious rites but only the oil of wild fruits (Manu VI. 17 and Yāj. III. 49).

v3.c45.27

(11) He is to eat only once either in the day in the 4th part (of the day divided into eight) or at night or he may take food every alternate day or once after two or three days (Viṣṇu Dh. S. 95. 5-6, Manu VI. 19). He may also follow the method of the penance of Cāndrāyaṇa (stated in Manu XI. 216) or he may subsist on wild fruits, roots and flowers only (Manu VI. 20-21, Yāj. III. 50) or may eat only once at the end of a fortnight (according to one's ability). He may reduce gradually the quantity of food he takes, ultimately subsisting on water alone or on wind (Āp. Dh. S. II. 9. 23. 2, Manu VI. 31). Vide Viṣṇu Dh. S. 95. 7-12 also.

v3.c45.28

(12) He may accumulate food materials only for a day or a month or a year (but never for more than a year) and should throw away his stored food material every year in the month of Āśvina (Manu VI. 15, Yāj. III. 47, Āp. Dh. S. II. 9. 22. 24).²¹²⁵

v3.c45.29

²¹²⁵ नवे सस्ये प्राप्ते पुरागमङ्गजानीयात् । आप. ध. सू. II. 9. 22. 24.

v3.c45.30

(13) He should practise severe austerities by standing in the midst of five fires (4 fires in the four directions and the blazing sun overhead), by standing in the open in the rains, by wearing wet garments in winter (Manu VI. 23-34, Yāj. III. 52, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 95. 2-4) and thus habituate his body to privations and mortifications.

v3.c45.31

(14) He should gradually give up residing in a house, but should stay under a tree and subsist only on fruits and roots²¹²⁶ (Manu VI. 25, Vas. IX. 11, Yāj. III. 54, Āp. Dh. S. II. 9. 21. 20).

v3.c45.32

²¹²⁶ वृक्षमूलनिकेतन ऊर्ध्वं षड्भ्यो मासेभ्योऽनग्निरनिकेतः । वसिष्ठ IX. 11.

v3.c45.33

(15) At night he should sleep on the bare ground, should pass the day either sitting or moving about or in the practice of Yoga and should make no effort to enjoy the things that give pleasures (Manu VI. 22 and 26, Yāj. III. 51).

v3.c45.34

(16) He should study the various texts of the Upaniṣads for the purity of his body, for the increase of his knowledge and ultimately for realising *brahma* (Manu VI. 29-30).

v3.c45.35

(17) If the forest hermit suffers from some incurable disease and cannot properly perform his duties or feels death to be near, he should start on the great journey (Mahāprasthāna) turning his face towards the north-east, subsisting on water and air only, till the body falls to rise no more (Manu VI. 31, Yāj. III. 55). The Mit. and Aparārka (p. 945) on Yāj. III. 55 quote a smṛti 'a forest hermit may resort to the distant journey or may enter water or fire or may throw himself from a precipice'.²¹²⁷

v3.c45.36

²¹²⁷ वानप्रस्थो दुराध्वानं ज्वलनाम्बुप्रवेशनं भृगुप्रपतनं चानुतिष्ठेत् । इति स्मरणात् । मिता० on या. III. 55 (the printed text of मिता० reads वीराध्वानं while अपरार्क reads दुराध्वानम् ).

v3.c45.37

The Baud. Dh. S. III. 3 gives an intricate classification of vānaprasthas. They are either *pacamānakas* (who take cooked or ripe food) or *apacamānakas* (who do not cook their food). Each of these two classes is again sub-divided into five. The five *pacamānakas* are *sarvāraṇyakas*, *vaituṣikas*, those who subsist on fruits, roots and bulbous roots, those who subsist on fruits only, those who subsist on vegetables only. Sarvāraṇyakas are of two kinds, viz. *indrāvasiktas* (who bring creepers, shrubs and cook them, offer agnihotra therewith and offer it to guests and eat the rest) and *reto-vasiktas* (who bring the flesh of animals killed by tigers, wolves or hawks and cook it and offer to Agni &c.). The *apacamānakas* are five vīz. *unmajjakas* (who do not employ implements of iron or stone for holding food), *pravṛttāśinaḥ* (who eat food from their hands, without using any vessel), *mukhenādāyinaḥ* (who eat food with their mouth, without using their hands, as beasts do), *toyāhāras* (who subsist on water only), *vāyubhakṣāḥ* (who observe total fast). These are according to Baud. the ten *dīkṣās* of Vaikhānasaṣ. Manu also (VI. 29) calls the rules to be observed by forest hermits dīkṣās.

v3.c45.38

Bṛhat-Parāśara (chap. XI. p. 290) speaks of four divisions of vānaprasthas viz. Vaikhānasa, Udumbara, Vālakhilya and Vanevāsī; while Vaikh. VIII. 7 says that the vānaprasthas are either *sapatnīka* (who stay with their wife) or *apatnīka* and the first are of four varieties viz. Audumbara, Vairiñca, Vālakhilya and Phenapa. The Rāmāyaṇa (Araṇya, chap. 10. 2-6) speaks of forest hermits under various designations such as the Vālakhilyas, Aṣmakuṭṭas &c.

v3.c45.39

Any person of the three higher varṇas could become a vānaprastha, but a śūdra could not do so. Manu VI. 1 when starting the topic of vānaprasthas employs the word 'dvija'. In the Sāntiparva 21. 15 it is stated that a kṣatriya after transferring the kingdom to his son should subsist in a forest on wild food and follow the śrāvaṇa scriptures.²¹²⁸ In the Aśvamedhika-parva 35. 43 it is expressly stated that the order of vānaprasthas is meant for the three *dvijātis*.²¹²⁹ The Mahābhārata cites many examples of royal personages becoming vānaprasthas. Yayāti after crowning his youngest and most dutiful son Pūru as a king is said to have become a forest hermit (Ādiparva 86. 1) where he practised various austerities (Ādi. 86. 12-17) and ultimately ended his life by fasting (Ādi. 75. 58). In the Āśramavāsi-parva (chap. 19) the blind king Dhṛtarāṣṭra is said to have become a forest hermit with his wife Gāndhārī who put on bark garments and deer-skin. The Par. M. (I. part 2, p. 139) relying on Manu VI. 2, Yama and other sages states its view that men of the three varṇas could become forest hermits. Women also could repair to the forest. The Mausala parva (7. 74) states that when Kṛṣṇa left the mortal body, Satyabhāmā and other queens of Kṛṣṇa entered the forest having resolved to undergo severe austerities. The Ādiparva (128. 12-13) narrates that, on the death of Pāṇḍu, Satyavatī with her two daughters-in-law repaired to a forest for austerities and died there. Vide also Śānti 147. 10 (for Mahāprasthāna) and Āśramavāsiparva. 37. 27-28. According to Vaik. VIII. 1 and Vāmanapurāṇa 14. 117-118 a brāhmaṇa could pass through all four āśramas, a kṣatriya through three (he could not be a sannyāsin), a vaiśya through two (brahmacarya and gārhasthya) and a śūdra could resort to only one viz. the householder's mode of life. Vide the story of Śambūka referred to above (p. 119).

v3.c45.40

²¹²⁸ पुत्रसंक्रामितश्रीश्च वने वन्येन वर्तयन् । विधिना श्रावणेनैव कुर्यात्कर्माण्यतन्द्रितः ॥ शान्तिपर्व 21. 15. श्रावण seems to be a variant for श्रामण or श्रामणक. Vide note 2123 above.

v3.c45.41

²¹²⁹ वानप्रस्थं द्विजातीनां त्रयाणामुपदिश्यते । सर्वेषामेव वर्णानां गार्हस्थ्यं तद्विधीयते ॥ आश्वमेधिकपर्व 35. 43; सत्यभामा तथैवान्या देव्यः कृष्णस्य संमताः । वनं प्रविविशू राजंस्तापस्ये कृतनिश्चयाः ॥ मौसल 7. 74; जलमग्निस्तथा वायुर्धवापि विकर्षणम् । तापसानां प्रशस्यन्ते गच्छ संजय मा चिरम् ॥ आश्रम० 37. 27-28; ब्राह्मणस्याश्रमाश्चत्वारः क्षत्रियस्याद्यास्त्रयो वैश्यस्य द्वावेव । वैखानसस्मार्त VIII. 1.

v3.c45.42

The question whether ending one's life by starting on the Great Journey or by falling from a precipice is sinful exercised the minds of many writers on dharmaśāstra. The Dharmaśāstra writers generally condemn suicide or an attempt to commit suicide as a great sin. Parāśara (IV. 1–2) states that if a man or woman hangs himself or herself through extreme pride or extreme rage or through affliction or fear he or she falls into hell for sixty thousand years.²¹³⁰ Manu V. 89 says that no water is to be offered for the benefit of the souls of those who kill themselves. The Ādiparva (179. 20) declares that one who commits suicide does not reach blissful worlds. Vas. Dh. S. (23. 14–16) ordains "whoever kills himself becomes *abhiśasta* (guilty of mortal sin) and his *sapiṇḍas* have to perform no death rites for him; a man becomes a killer of the self when he destroys himself by wood (i. e. by fire), water, clods and stones (i. e. by striking his head against a stone), weapon, poison, or ropes (i. e. by hanging). They also quote a verse 'that *dvija* who through affection performs the last rites of a man who commits suicide must undergo the penance of Cāndrāyaṇa with Tapta-kṛcchra'". Vas. Dh. S. 23. 18 prescribes a prāyaścitta for merely resolving to kill oneself (even when no attempt is made). Yama (20–21) prescribes that when a person tries to do away with himself by such methods as hanging, if he dies, his body should be smeared with impure things and if he lives he should be fined two hundred *paṇas*; his friends and sons should each be fined one *paṇa* and then they should undergo the penance laid down in the *śāstra*.²¹³¹

v3.c45.43

²¹³⁰ अतिमानादतिक्रोधात्स्नेहाद्वा यदि वा भयात्। उद्वध्नीयात्स्त्री पुमान्वा गतिरेषा विधीयते॥ पूयशोणितसंपूर्णे अन्धे तमसि मज्जति। षष्टिं वर्षसहस्राणि नरकं प्रतिपद्यते॥ पराशर IV. 1–2.

v3.c45.44

²¹³¹ आत्मानं घातयेद्यस्तु रज्ज्वादिभिरुपक्रमैः। मृतोऽमेध्येन लेप्तव्यो जीवतो द्विशतं दमः॥ दण्ड्यास्तत्सुत्रामित्राणि प्रत्येकं पणिकं दमम्। प्रायश्चित्तं ततः कुर्युर्यथाशास्त्रप्रचोदितम्॥ यम 20–21.

v3.c45.45

In spite of this general attitude, exceptions were made in the smṛtis, the epics and purāṇas. When a man was guilty of brāhmaṇa murder, he was allowed to meet death at the hands of archers in a battle who knew that the sinner wanted to be killed in that way as a penance or the sinner may throw himself head downwards in fire (Manu XI. 73, Yāj. III. 248). Similarly the drinker of spirituous liquor expiated his sin by taking boiling wine, water, ghee, cow's milk or urine and dying thereby (Manu XI. 90-91, Yāj. III. 253, Gaut. 23. 1, Vas. Dh. S. 20. 22). Vide also Vas. Dh. S. 13. 14, Gaut. 23. 1, Āp. Dh. S. I. 9. 25. 1-3 and 6 for similar deadly penances for incest and for drinking liquor and for theft. The Āp.Dh.S. (I.10.28. 15-17) quotes Hārīta who condemns such penances involving death.²¹³² At extremely holy places like Prayāga, the Sarasvatī and Benares persons were allowed to kill themselves by drowning with the desire of securing release from *saṁsāra*. The Śalyaparva (39. 33-34) states 'whoever abandons his body at Pṛthūdaka on the northern bank of the Sarasvatī after repeating Vedic prayers would not be troubled by death thereafter'.²¹³³ The Anuśāsanaparva (25. 62-64) says that if a man knowing the Vedānta and understanding the ephemeral nature of life abandons life in the holy Himālayas by fasting, he would reach the world of *brahma*. Vide also Vanaparva 85. 83 (about suicides at Prayāga). The Matsya-purāṇa (186. 34-35) eulogises the peak of Amarakaṇṭaka by stating 'whoever dies at Amarakaṇṭaka by fire, poison, water or by fasting enjoys the pleasures (described in verses 28-33). He who throws himself down (from the peaks of Amarakaṇṭaka) never returns (to *saṁsāra*).’²¹³⁴

v3.c45.46

²¹³² गुरुतल्पगामी तु सुषिरां सूर्मिं प्रविश्योभयत आदीप्त्याभिदहेदात्मानम्। निश्चैतदिति हारीतः। यो ह्यात्मानं परं वाभिमन्यतेऽभिशस्त एव स भवति। आप. ध. सू. I. 10. 28. 15-17.

v3.c45.47

²¹³³ सरस्वत्युत्तरे तीरे यस्त्यजेदात्मनस्तनुम्। पृथूदके जप्यपरो नैनं श्वो मरणं तपेत्॥ शल्यपर्व 39. 33-34

v3.c45.48

²¹³⁴ एवं भोगो भवेत्तस्य यो मृतोऽमरकण्टके। अग्नौ विषजले वापि तथा चैव ह्यनाशके॥ अनिवर्तिका गतिस्तस्य पवनस्याम्बरे यथा। पतनं कुरुते यस्तु अमरेशे नराधिप। मत्स्य 186. 34-35.

v3.c45.49

There are historical examples of this practice supplied by Epigraphy. The Khairha plates of Yaśaḥkarṇadeva (dated Kalacuri *saṁvat* 823 i. e. 1073 A. D.) narrate that king Gāṅgeya obtained release along with his one hundred wives at the famous banyan tree of Prayāga (E. I. vol. XII. p. 205 at p. 211).²¹³⁵ King Dhaṅgadeva of the Chāṇḍella dynasty is said to have lived for more than 100 years and to have abandoned his body at Prayāga while contemplating on Rudra (E. I. vol. I. p. 140). The Cālukya king Someśvara after performing yoga rites drowned himself in the Tungabhadrā in 1068 A. D. (E. C. vol. II. Sk. 136). The Raghuvamśa VIII. 94 poetically describes how Aja in his old age when his health was shattered by disease resorted to fasting and drowned himself at the confluence of the holy rivers, the Ganges and the Śarayū, and immediately attained the position of a denizen of Heaven.

v3.c45.50

²¹³⁵ प्राप्ते प्रयागवटमूलनिवेशबन्धौ सार्धं शतेन गृहिणीभिरमुत्र मुक्तिम्। E. I. vol. XII. 205 at p. 211.

v3.c45.51

Apart from suicide for purposes of penance or at holy places the smṛtis allowed, as said above, a forest hermit to start on the great journey to meet death and also allowed in certain circumstances death by entering fire, or by drowning or by fasting or by throwing oneself from a precipice even for those who were not hermits. Gautama (14. 11) prescribes that no mourning need be observed for those who wilfully meet death by fasting, or by cutting themselves off with a weapon, or by fire, or poison or water or by hanging or by falling from a precipice. But Atri (218-219) states some exceptions viz. 'if one who is very old (beyond 70), one who cannot observe the rules of bodily purification (owing to extreme weakness &c.), one who is so ill that no medical help can be given, kills himself by throwing himself from a precipice or into fire or water or by fasting, mourning should be observed for him for three days and śrāddha may be performed for him.²¹³⁶ Aparārka (p. 536) quotes texts of Brahmagarbha, Vivasvat and Gārgya about an householder 'he who suffering from serious illness cannot live, or who is very old, who has no desire left for the pleasures of any of the senses and who has carried out his tasks may bring about his death at his pleasure by resorting to mahāprasthāna, by entering fire or water or by falling from a precipice. By so doing he incurs no sin and his death is far better than *tapas*, and one should not desire to live vainly (without being able to perform the duties laid down by the śāstra).[<blank>]'²¹³⁷ Aparārka (p. 877) and Par. M. (I. part 2, p. 228) quote several verses from Ādipurāṇa about dying by fasting, by entering fire or deep water or by falling from a precipice, or by going on mahā- prasthāna in the Himālayas or by abandoning life from the branch of the vaṭa tree at Prayāga, the verses declaring that not only does such a man not incur sin but he attains the worlds of bliss. In the Rāmāyaṇa (Araṇya, chap. 9) Śarabhaṅga is said to have entered fire. We find that the Mṛcchakaṭika (I. 4) speaks of king Śūdraka as having entered fire. In the Gupta Inscriptions No. 42, the great Emperor Kumāragupta is said to have entered the fire of dried cowdung cakes. The editor remarks that there is necessarily no reference to the fact that the emperor voluntarily embraced death by fire. But it appears that there is no great propriety in the description if all that is meant is that the Emperor's corpse was burnt with 'karīṣa'.

v3.c45.52

²¹³⁶ वृद्धः शौचस्मृतेर्लुप्तः प्रत्याख्यातभिषक्क्रियः। आत्मानं घातयेद्यस्तु भृग्वग्न्यनशनाम्बुभिः॥ तस्य त्रिरात्रमाशौचं द्वितीये त्वस्थिसञ्चयम्। तृतीये तूदकं कृत्वा चतुर्थे श्राद्धमाचरेत्॥ अत्रि 218–219 quoted by मेधातिथि on मनु V. 89, मिता० on या. III. 6, अपरार्क p. 902 (as from Aṅgiras), परा. मा. I. part 2 p. 228 (as from शातातप).

v3.c45.53

²¹³⁷ तथा च ब्रह्मगर्भः। यो जीवितुं न शक्नोति महाव्याध्युपपीडितः। सोऽग्नुदक-महायात्रां कुर्वन्नामुत्र दुष्यति॥ विवस्वान्। सर्वेन्द्रियविरक्तस्य वृद्धस्य कृतकर्मणः। व्याधितस्येच्छया तीर्थे मरणं तपसोधिकम्॥ तथा गार्ग्योपि गृहस्थमधिकृत्याह। महाप्रस्थानगमनं ज्वलनाम्बुप्रवेशनम्। भृगुप्रपतनं चैव वृथा नेच्छेत्तु जीवितुम्॥ quoted by अपरार्क p. 536.

v3.c45.54

Some put forward a Vedic passage 'one who desires heaven should not (seek to) die before the appointed span of life is at an end (of itself)' as opposed to the permission for suicide given by the smṛtis. Medhātithi on Manu VI. 32²¹³⁸ quotes this Vedic text and explains it away by saying that if *śruti* intended to lay down an absolute prohibition against suicide in every case, it would have simply said 'one who desires heaven should not (seek to) die'. The Vāj. S. (40. 3) contains a verse saying 'whoever destroy their self reach after death *Asura* worlds that are shrouded in blinding darkness', which really refers to persons ignorant of the correct knowledge of the Self. But this has been interpreted by many as referring to those guilty of suicide (ātmahan). Vide Uttararāmacarita IV, after verse 3²¹³⁹ and Bṛ. Up. IV. 4. 11 for a verse similar to that in the Vāj. S. The Rājataraṅgiṇī (VI. 1411) refers to officers appointed by the king to superintend prāyopaveśa (resolving on death by fasting).

v3.c45.55

²¹³⁸ ननु च तस्मादु ह न पुरायुषः स्वःकामी प्रेयादिति श्रुतिस्तत्र कुतो वानप्रस्थस्य शरीरत्यागः । उच्यते । जरसा विशीर्णस्यानिष्टसन्दशनादिना वा विदिते प्रत्यासन्ने मृत्यौ मुमूर्षतो न श्रुतिविरोधः । एवं हि तत्र श्रूयते न पुरायुष इति । अवस्थाविशेषे ह्यनभिप्रेते मरणे एतावदेवावक्ष्यत् स्वःकामी प्रेयादिति । मेधा. on मनु VI 32. Vide कुल्लूक on मनु VI. 31 for an explanation of the same Vedic quotation.

v3.c45.56

²¹³⁹ अन्धतामिस्रा ह्यसूर्या नाम ते लोकास्तेभ्यः प्रतिविधीयन्ते य आत्मघातिन इत्येवमृषयो मन्यन्ते । उत्तररामचरित IV after verse 3.

v3.c45.57

Among Jains a similar rule prevailed. The Ratnakaraṇḍaśrāvakācāra (chap. 5) of Samantabhadra (about 2nd century A. D.) dilates on Sallekhanā, which consists in abandoning the body for the accumulation of merit in calamities, famines, extreme old age and incurable disease.²¹⁴⁰ The Kālandrī (Sirohi State) Inscription records the suicide of a Jain congregation by fasting in *saṁvat* 1389 (E. I. vol. XX., appendix p. 98 No. 691).

v3.c45.58

²¹⁴⁰ उपसर्गे दुर्भिक्षे जरसि रुजायां च निःप्रतीकारे । धर्माय तनुविमोचनमाहुः सल्लेखनामार्याः ॥ रत्नकरण्डश्रावकाचार chap. 5. I owe this quotation to the kindness of Prof. Upadhye of Kolhapur.

v3.c45.59

From the account of the death of Kalanos the Indian gymnosophist at 73 given by Megasthenes (Mc Crindle p. 106) we can gather that the practice of religious suicide prevailed long before the 4th century B. C. Strabo (XV. 1. 4) states that with the ambassadors that came to Augustus Cæsar from India also arrived an Indian gymnosophist who committed himself to the flames like Kalanos who exhibited the same spectacle before Alexander.

v3.c45.60

In the times of the purāṇas the method of starting on mahāprasthāna and suicide by entering fire or falling from a precipice came to be forbidden and was included in Kalivarjya.²¹⁴¹

v3.c45.61

²¹⁴¹ महाप्रस्थानगमनं गोमेधश्च तथा मखः । एतान् धर्मान् कलियुगे वर्ज्यानाहुर्मनीषिणः ॥ बृहन्नारदीयपुराण, पूर्वार्ध chap. 24. 16; vide also स्मृतितत्त्व I. p. 12.

v3.c45.62

It will be noticed that some of the duties and regulations prescribed for vānaprasthas are practically the same as those for sannyāsins. For example, the rules laid down in Manu VI. 25-29 for forest hermits are almost the same as those for *parivrājakas*²¹⁴² (Manu VI. 38, 43, 44). The Āp. Dh. S. employs the same words twice in delineating the characteristics of both (II. 9. 21. 10 and 20). The order of hermits gradually leads on to or rather passes over into that of sannyāsins. Both have to observe celibacy and restraint of senses, both have to regulate the intake and quality of food, both have to contemplate on the passages of the Upaniṣads and strive for the knowledge of *Brahman*. There were no doubt some differences. The vānaprastha could be accompanied by his wife at least in the beginning, a sannyāsin could not be so. A vānaprastha had to keep fires, perform the daily and other yajñas at least in the beginning, the sannyāsin gave up his fires. The vānaprastha had to concentrate upon *tapas*, upon inuring himself to privations, severe austerities, and self-mortification, while the sannyāsin was concerned principally with saṁyama (restraint or quiescence of senses) and contemplation of the highest Reality, as stated by Śaṁkarācārya on Vedāntasūtra III. 4. 20.²¹⁴³ Owing to the great similarity and virtual fusion of the two āśramas the stage of vānaprastha came to be gradually ignored and people passed from the householder's life directly to the life of sannyāsa. Govindasvāmī on Baud. Dh. S. III. 3. 14–17 remarks that the ācārya (Baudhāyana) should be asked why he describes the two orders of vānaprastha and sannyāsa as distinct.²¹⁴⁴ In course of time no one probably became a vānaprastha and therefore having recourse to the stage of vānaprastha came to be forbidden in the Kali age.²¹⁴⁵

v3.c45.63

²¹⁴² अनग्निरनिकेतः स्यादशर्माशरणो मुनिः स्वाध्याय एवोत्सृजमानो वाचम् ...। आप. ध. सू. II. 9. 21. 10 and again एकाग्निरनिकेतः ...... वाचम् । आप. ध. सू. II. 9. 21. 20 (about वानप्रस्थ).

v3.c45.64

²¹⁴³ तपश्वासाधारणधर्मो वानप्रस्थानां कायक्लेशप्रधानत्वात् तपःशब्दस्य तत्र रूढेः भिक्षोस्तु धर्म इन्द्रियसंयमादिलक्षणो नैव तपःशब्देनाभिलप्यते। भाष्य on वेदान्तसूत्र III. 4. 20.

v3.c45.65

²¹⁴⁴ वानप्रस्थसंन्यासभेदः किमर्थमाचार्यकृत इत्यसावेव प्रष्टव्यः । गोविन्दस्वामी on बौ. ध. सू. III. 3. 14–17.

v3.c45.66

²¹⁴⁵ मांसादनं तथा श्राद्धे वानप्रस्थाश्रमस्तथा । …… एतान् धर्मान् कलियुगे वर्ज्यानाहुर्मनीषिणः ॥ बृहन्नारदीय, पूर्वार्ध 24. 14; ' देवेरेण सुतोत्पत्तिर्वानप्रस्थाश्रमग्रहः ' स्मृत्यर्थसार p. 2, verse 17.

Linked texts (45)