Pre-Buddhist India: A Political, Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey of Ancient India Based Mainly on the Jataka Stories c6.s2: Chapter V. Education
Pre-Buddhist India: A Political, Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey of Ancient India Based Mainly on the Jātaka Stories c6.s2
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Chapter V. Education
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EDUCATION is no doubt one of the standards by which cultural position of a particular society or people is to be judged. From the light which these stories throw, here and there, on the system and nature of education, we may be inclined to say that the Jātaka society had reached a high watermark of cultural attainments.¹
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¹ On this subject, the two articles, one by J. N. Sikdar in the J. B. O. R. S. IV, pp. 148-61, and the other by Dr. R.K. Mookerji in the Buddhistic Studies, pp. 236-56, have been helpful to us.
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As to the general education of a child at home—for the Indian system of primary education was mainly one of hereditary transmission of skill in arts and crafts—we know very little. Once we hear: when the son of the Seṭṭhi learnt writing (lekhaṃ), the slave Kaṭāhaka too went with him carrying his slate (phalakaṃ vahaṃāno gantvā), and thus learnt writing.² It would seem from this, that the boys received instruction somewhere outside the home, presumably at a public school. The use of the word 'phalaka' or board also shows, that method of instruction of beginners in the art of writing was much the same as in the primary schools of to-day. The boys learnt the three Rs—reading, writing and arithmetic—in these elementary schools.³
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² J., I, p. 451. "Comenius calls the first years of a child the mother's school, and finds here the rudiments of all later education." S. V. Venkateswara, Indian Culture, through the Ages, I, p. 107.
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³ According to Kauṭilya, a prince should be taught lipi (writing), and saṅkhyāna (arithmetic), after the 4th year. Arthaśāstra, I, 5.
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After completing this general education, the boys were sent out to some well-known institution for higher education. Of all the places which imparted higher education, Takkasilā, in the extreme north-west, was by far the most important and widely renowned. Our stories abound in references to this famous University town.⁴ It was, as we have already noted, the chief intellectual centre of the age, attracting students and scholars from different and distant parts of the country.⁵ The fame of Takkasilā as a great centre of learning was evidently due to its world-renowned teachers (disāpāmokhā ācariyā). Let us see how this great University seat imparted education to the youths of the country.
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⁴ For full references see Dines Andersen, Index to the Jātaka, pp. 61-2.
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⁵ From Bārāṇasi J., I, pp. 272, 285, 409, 463; II, pp. 85, 87; 111, p. 234; IV, pp. 50, 224; V, pp. 127, 263; Rājagaha—J., III, p. 238; V, p. 177, 247; Mithilā—IV. p. 316; Ujjeni-IV, p. 392; Kosala—III, p. 45; Sivi-V, p. 210; Kuru-III, p. 399; V, 457.
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As stated before, students are always spoken of as going to Takkasilā to complete their education and not to begin it. As a rule, the time for beginning the higher studies at Takkasilā is given as the age of sixteen (solasavassakāle),⁶ or when the students come of age (vayapatte).⁷ Naturally, students of a maturer age only could be sent so far away from their homes.
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⁶ J., II, p. 277; 111, p. 122; IV, p. 237; V, pp. 127, 210.
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⁷ J., I, pp. 356, 430, 505; II, p. 52; I, pp. 18, 171, 194, 228, 248; V, pp. 162, 193, 227
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ADMISSION. While dealing with the education of Princes we have, by reproducing a long and characteristic passage from the *Tilamuṭṭhi Jātaka*,¹ noticed practically all the principal features of the educational system and organization of the times, specially at Takkasilā. We saw, there, how the student, coming from abroad for learning, was admitted into the University. Usually the students paid the entire tuition fees—the teacher's fees (*ācariyabhāgaṃ*)—in advance, which was 1000 pieces of money (a favourite figure).² In lieu of paying fees in cash, a student was allowed to pay them in the shape of services to his teacher. Such students attended on their teacher by day and received instruction by night³ and were called *dhammantevāsikā*, as against those feepayers—*ācariyabhāgadāyakā*—who only learnt the arts. The duties of 500 Brāhmaṇa pupils of a school were, among others, to gather firewood from the forests for their master.⁴ If however a student wanted to devote his whole time to studies, without sparing any time for such services, and at the same time was not able to pay the fees in advance, he may be trusted to pay them after the completion of his education. We read of one such Brāhmaṇa student paying off the fees by begging after completing his studies.⁵ It may also happen, that poor students were provided a free education by some charitable community. For instance, once the "Benares folk" used to give day by day commons of food to the poor lads, and had them taught free.⁶ Then again the cost of education was, to some extent, taken over from the teachers, and the pupils, by the occasional invitations to dinner extended to them by philanthropic householders or by the latter themselves bringing to the former presents in oxen and rice and milk.⁷ Another class of students was formed by those who were sent as companions of the princes of their respective countries at State expenses.⁸ Looking to the length of time a student took to finish his education, and to the necessary expenses which the teacher had to incur, the amount of fee charged does not seem to have been very heavy.
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¹ J., II, pp. 277-8. *Supra*, pp. 89-90.
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² J., I, p. 273; II, pp. 47-8; IV, pp. 38-9; 50, 128, 298, 316; V, p. 457.
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³ J., II, p. 278.
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⁴ J., I, pp. 317-8.
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⁵ J., IV, p. 224.
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⁶ J., I, p. 239—*Bārāṇasivāsino duggatānaṃ paribbattaṃ datvā sippaṃ sikkhāpenti.*
7. J., I, pp. 191, 318; III, pp. 171, 537, IV; p. 391.
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⁸ J., III, p. 238; V, pp. 247, 263.
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DAY-SCHOLARS. Though the University centres were mainly residential, day-scholars were also admitted to instruction. Prince Junha of Benares had an independent house for himself from which he attended the college at Takkasilā. "One night after lessons he left the teacher's house in the dark and set out for home."⁹ In the day-scholars were included householders or married students. We have several instances of such day-scholars, married men, who are obstructed by their wives from going to their master's house and listening to his teachings.¹⁰
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⁹ J., IV, p. 96.
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The usual number of students under an individual teacher is invariably given as five hundred—which, again, is a conventional figure.¹ Among these, the majority was, of course, formed by Khattiyas and the Brāhmaṇas.² The minority was formed by sons of seṭṭhis or magnates and officers of kings.³ Once we read of a tailor going to Takkasilā, but that also in the company, or rather as a servant, of a merchants' son.⁴ Caṇḍālas were not admitted, as we saw from the instance of the two brothers Citta and Sambhūta.⁵
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¹ J., I, pp. 239, 300, 317, 402, 436; III, pp. 18, 235.
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² J., I, p. 463; II, p. 100; III, pp. 122, 158.
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³ J., II, p. 99; IV, p. 38, 237; V, p. 227.
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⁴ J., IV, p. 38: The fisherman's instance is only a rare exception: III, p. 171.
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⁵ J., IV, 391-2.
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The particulars about the life of the students are very few in the stories. But from these few we at least find, that the students led a very simple life. Even the aristocratic princes came there with the modest equipment of a pair of onesoled sandals (ekatālika upānaha), a sunshade of leaves (paṇṇachattam) and a thousand pieces of money as the teacher's fees, of which not a single piece was probably left for private use.⁶ In other ways also the life of the students at the University was under strict control of the teacher, so much so that they were not even free to go to a river for bath, except in the company of the teacher.⁷ Their standing duty was to gather firewood in the forests, and also personal service to the teacher.⁸ Their food was also simple consisting mainly of rice-gruel (yāgu) or simple rice (bhatta), and prepared by a maid of the teacher's house.⁹ At invitations, which were not infrequent, they were given sugar-cane (ucchu), molasses (guḷam), curd and milk (dadhikhīram).¹⁰
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⁶ J., II, pp. 277-8; IV, p. 96.
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⁷ J., II, p. 278.
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⁸ J., I, pp. 317-8: 447-8.
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⁹ J., I, p. 318.
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¹⁰ J., I, p. 448.
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Of course it is inconceivable that a single individual could manage a school of 500 pupils or so. He was helped by a staff of Assistant teachers (piṭṭhi-ācariya). And only the most advanced or senior pupils (jeṭṭhantevāsikā) were appointed as Assistant teachers.¹¹ The senior pupils also rendered help in teaching work. We read of a teacher appointing his oldest pupil to act as his substitute.¹² Another teacher of Takkasilā, while going to Benares on some mission, says to his chief pupil: "My son, I am going away from home, while I am away, you are to instruct these my pupils."¹³ These senior pupils or monitors (anusatthārā) were held in respect by other pupils.¹⁴ By being associated with teaching these seniors soon became fit to be teachers themselves. Prince Sutasoma being the senior pupil soon attained to proficiency in teaching (nipphattim pāpuṇi) and becoming the private teacher of his comrade in the school soon educated him, while the others only gradually acquired their learning.¹ We may also note, in this connection, that the teacher was not a single individual, but had a family of his own (ācariyakulam),² having wife and children.³ And it was quite usual for the teacher to give his daughter, if he had any, in marriage to his eldest and advanced student,⁴ and he might establish a special test for the purpose.⁵
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¹¹ J., II, p. 100, V, p. 457.
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¹² J., I, p. 141.
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¹³ J., IV, p. 51—'tāta aham vippavasissāmi, tvam yāva mamāgamanā ime māṇave sippam vācehīti.'
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¹⁴ J., IV, p. 178-G. 45.
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¹ J., V, pp. 457-8.
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² J., V, p. 457.
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³ J., IV, p. 50.
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⁴ J., III, p. 219; VI, p. 347—“tasmin pana kule sace pi vayapattā dhitā hoti jetṭhantevāsikassa dātabbā ti vattam.”
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⁵ J., III, pp. 18-9.
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STUDY HOURS. The study hour seems to have commenced very early in the morning, when the boys were roused from their sleep by the crowing of a cock. The cock, it seems, was domesticated in every school to serve as a clock. It was a necessity. Once, when the trained cock died, the students brought a second one which, however, had been bred in a cemetery, and had no knowledge of times and seasons, and used to crow casually—at midnight as well as at daybreak. Roused by his crowing at midnight, the young Brāhmaṇas fell to their studies; by dawn they were tired out and could not for sleepiness keep their attention on the subject already learnt (gahitatthānamapi); and when he fell acrowing in broad day, they did not get a chance of quiet for repeating their lessons (sajjhāya). And, as it was the cock's crowing both at midnight and by day which had brought their studies to a standstill, they took the bird and wrung his neck.⁶ This passage shows that there were certain hours for private study, when the students repeated new lessons and revised the old ones. The two things had probably to be finished before noon.
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⁶ J., I, p. 436 and G. 115.
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INSTRUCTION. Instruction by the teacher seems to have been imparted at times convenient to the students, and light and lucky days were observed in giving it,⁷ reminding us of the ‘anadhyāya’ system of the Upaniṣadic times. As pointed out before, the poorer students performed menial work for the school during the day time, and received instruction at night⁸. Possibly, the day-scholars also learnt the sippas at night.⁹ The ācariyabhāgadāyakas were treated like the eldest sons in the house, and were given schooling on every light and lucky day.¹⁰
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⁷ J., II, p. 278.
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⁸ J., II, p. 47.
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⁹ J., IV, p. 96.
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¹⁰ J., II, p. 278 (sallahukena nakkhattena).
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TEXT BOOKS. From the frequent use of the expression ‘sippam vācesi,’ i.e., ‘causing to read the sippas, the arts, it seems clear that the students used to read books. And in the instance already cited, the reference to drowsiness preventing the students from understanding (lit. seeing-passanti) the subject already learnt, also indicate the use of books. We have also direct references to the existences of books (*potthakam*) ‘preserved with brilliant, coloured rappings, and read laying them upon a beautiful standish.’¹ Moreover, the repeated mention of the use of writing, both in private and official correspondence, leaves no doubt as to this.
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¹ J., III, pp. 235, 292; IV, p. 299; V, p. 483.
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COURSES OF STUDY. The three *Vedas* and the eighteen *sippas* or arts² are repeatedly spoken of as the subjects taught at Takkasilā. The invariable mention of the three *Vedas* shows that the *Atharvaveda* was not included in the curriculum. The *Vedas* were of course learnt by heart. We do not know of what did the 18 *sippas* consist. We have however mention of the following individual arts and sciences: elephant lore (*hatthisutta*),³ magic charms (*mante*),⁴ spell for bringing back the dead to life (*matakutthāpanamantam*),⁵ hunting (*luddaka-kamma*),⁶ spell for understanding all animals’ cries (*sabbarāvajānanamantam*),⁷ archery (*issāpasippa: dhanuvidyā*),⁸ the art of prognostication (*aṅgavijjā*),⁹ charm for commanding all things of sense (*ālambanamantam*),¹⁰ divining from the signs of the body,¹¹ and medicine (*tikicchā*).¹²
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² J., I, pp. 259, 285, 356, 402, 464; II, p. 87; III, pp. 115, 122, 537-8
3. J., II, p. 47.
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⁴ J., II, p. 100; also I, p. 402.
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⁵ J., I, p. 510.
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⁶ J., II, p. 200.
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⁷ J., II, p. 415.
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⁸ J., I, p. 356; II, p. 87; III, p. 219; V, p. 127.
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⁹ J., III, p. 122.
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¹⁰ J., IV, p. 457.
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¹¹ J., II, p. 200.
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¹² J., IV, p. 171.
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Most of the references in the *Jātakas* point to the students taking up the *sippa* or the science course. It seems that technical education was much more valued in those times than Vedic or theological studies. It is also evident from some passages that a student was allowed to take up a special course in one of the *sippas*, in addition to or without the ordinary course.¹³
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¹³ J., I, p. 356; II, p. 99; III, pp. 18, 129; IV, p. 456.
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PRACTICAL SIDE. These sciences were not simply theoretical. Knowledge of the literature of a subject had to be followed by its practical applications. For some subjects, like medicine, practical training was naturally essential, as we know from the account of Jīvaka’s education.¹⁴
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¹⁴ Mahāvagga, VIII, 1, 6 ff.
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In other subjects, the practical course was left to be completed by the students themselves when they left their colleges. They wandered far and wide, acquiring all practical usages (*sabbasamayasippāni*) and understanding country observances (*desacārittam*).¹⁵ Princes had to demonstrate their technical knowledge before their fathers after returning home from Takkasilā, as we have seen before. “A practical turn was indeed given to all instruction as a pedagogic principle.” In addition to theoretical lectures and practical training, nature-study was sometimes insisted upon for those who were intellectually weak among students. An interesting example of this is furnished by the *Naṅgalīsa Jātaka*;¹ a world-renowned professor of Benares had 500 young Brāhmaṇas to instruct, one of whom had always foolish notions in his mind (*dandhabhāva*), and always said the wrong thing; he was engaged with the rest in learning the scriptures as a pupil, but because of his folly could not master them. The teacher was at pains to consider what method of instruction would be suitable for that ‘veriest dullard’ of all his pupils. And the thought came to him, that the best way was to question him on his return from gathering firewood and leaves, as to something he had seen or done that day, and then to ask what it was like. ‘For,’ thought the master, ‘this will lead him on to making comparisons and giving reasons, and the continuous practice of comparing and reasoning on his part will enable me to impart learning to him.’ But the experiment in the end failed, for the boy compared snake, the trunk of an elephant, sugar-cane, curd and milk, all to the shaft of a plough:
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¹⁵ J., I, p. 356; III, pp. 115, 235, 238; IV, pp. 38, 200; V, pp. 247, 426.
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¹ J., I, pp. 447-49.
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“For universal application, he
Employs a term of limited import.
Plough-shaft and curds to him alike unknown
—The fool asserts the two things are the same.”²
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² J., I, p. 449-G. 119.
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This at least shows the earnest desire on the part of the teacher to use all his intellectual powers to educate a child.
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Next to Takkasilā, Benares was the most important as a centre of learning. It was however largely the creation of the ex-students of Takkasilā who set up as teachers at Benares, presumably at other places as well,³ and carried thither the culture of that cosmopolitan educational centre which was moulding the intellectual life of the whole of India. In course of time Benares also produced its own alumni as educationists—teachers of world-wide fame with the usual number of 500 pupils to teach.⁴ It is also probable that Benares had, like Takkasilā, specialized in the teaching of certain subjects, specially music,⁵ as it has till the present day. With all this, however, Benares was still a growing university in those days, and did not attain much celebrity which it afterwards did since the decline of Takkasilā. The movement of students towards Benares is, in the *Jātakas*, very slow and scarce in comparison with the other city. Even the students of Benares had to seek resort in Takkasilā.
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³ J., I, p. 463; II, p. 100.
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⁴ J., I, p. 238; III, pp. 18, 233; IV, p. 237.
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⁵ J., II, p. 248: “*Bārānasiyam guttilakumāro vayappatto gandhabbasippe nipphattim patvā Guttilagandhabbo nāma sakalajambudipe ayyagandhabbo ahosi.*”
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From the foregoing discussion it will have been apparent, that there was a general spread of education throughout the country. And it will have become also evident, that the demand for the knowledge of the *Sippas* or for technical and scientific education was not less keen than that for general education or religious studies. The large mass of middle-class people¹ and the lower strata of society,² however, do not seem to have got any benefit of this education directly.
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¹ *Cf.* J., IV, p. 255.
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² *Cf.* J., III, p. 171.
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Before we leave this subject, we must also note another institution which, in a way, promoted the spread of education. We mean those FOREST-SEATS. forest-seats where religious teachers, mainly drawn from the class of ex-students of Takkasilā, having renounced the world, imparted instruction to numerous disciples in the traditional learning of the age. These hermitages also served as schools of higher philosophical speculation and religious training. Some of the boldest speculations in Indian philosophy naturally emanated from these sylvan and solitary retreats, away from the haunts of men. Generally these were set up in the Himalayas.³ Sometimes however the bands of ascetics would establish themselves near the centres of population, and would have facilities for attracting recruits.⁴ Setaketu is said to have been originally a senior pupil at a Benares school. He then went to Takkasilā for education in the arts, on completion of which he wandered through the country learning all practical arts, and at last came across a group of 500 ascetics in a village, who after ordaining him taught him all their arts, texts and practices (*sippamantācaraṇam*).⁵
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³ J., I, pp. 406, 431, 505; III, p. 143; IV, p. 74.
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⁴ J., III, p. 115; IV, p. 193; V, p. 128.
Linked texts (3)
- Jātaka — Pāli
- Mahāvagga — Pāli
- Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra — Kauṭilya, Sanskrit