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Chandragupta Maurya and His Times c8: Chapter V: Ministers: Rules of Service

Chandragupta Maurya and His Times c8

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Chapter V: Ministers: Rules of Service

c8.2

**Constituents of the State.** The machinery of administration has been modelled by Kauṭilya with reference to the seven constituent elements of the State in the theory of Hindu polity. These consist of (1) the sovereign (*svāmī*), (2) the ministers (*amātya*), (3) the territory (*janapada*), (4) fortifications (*durga*), (5) financial strength (*kośa*), (6) military strength (*daṇḍa* or the army made up of its four limbs, infantry, cavalry, elephants and chariots) and (7) alliances (*mitrāṇi*).

c8.3.1

**Territory.** Of these, Kauṭilya duly emphasises the importance of the territorial basis of the State upon which its progress and future so much depend. First of all, Kauṭilya [IX. 1] gives utterance to his innate sense of patriotism and love of country by stating that “of the whole world, the northern part of the country which stretches from the Himalayas up to the seas (*Himavatsamudrāntaramudīchīnaṁ*) is marked out as the natural sphere of imperialism” (*Chakravartikshetram*). Here Kauṭilya is evidently thinking of the empire already established by Chandragupta in northern India by his overthrow of Greek rule in the Punjab, of Nanda empire of Magadha, and his rule over Surāshṭra in western India. This country is rich in its economic resources and potentialities, in its abundance of all varieties of land, cultivated (*grāmya*), uncultivated (*āraṇya*), forests, highlands (*pārvata*), well-watered lands (*audaka*), dry land (*bhauma*), stretches of even land (*sama*), and undulating land (*vishama*), so as to give scope to the growth of every kind of agricultural produce, both wet crops and dry crops. India to this day remains pre-eminently the land of agriculture, with its capacity for economic self-sufficiency depending upon its variety of climates so as to make India an 'epitome of the world.' In another passage [VII.

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1], Kauṭilya approves the country of warriors (*āyudhīyaprāya*), agriculturists, and craftsmen (*śreṇīprāyo*), and protected by forts on hill, or river, or by forest-fastnesses. Kauṭilya, as a man of the Frontier Province, was impressed by its many hill-forts. He also mentions the following essentials of a flourishing country: (1) Fort (2) Agriculture (*Setu*) (3) Roads (4) Mines as source of weapons of war (*saṁgrāmopakaraṇānāṁ yoniḥ*) (5) Timber forests supplying materials for constructing forts, carts, and chariots (*durgakarmaṇāṁ yānarathayoścha*) (6) Forests of Elephants and (7) Pastures for cattle (*vraja*) including Cow, Horse, Ass, and Camel (pointing to the Frontier Province) [VII. 14]. Among other valuable virtues which a country should possess (*janapadasampat*), Kauṭilya mentions them as follows [VI. 1]: It should be fortified in all its parts. It should be capable of supporting not merely the indigenous population but also the immigrants from foreign countries (*ātmadhāraṇaḥ paradhāraṇaścha*). It should be possessed of means of defence, natural, and artificial, such as mountains, forests, rivers and forts (*svārakshaḥ*). It should be economically self-contained (*svājīvaḥ*). It should have a loyal people who would resent foreign invasion (*śatrudveshī*). It should have weak neighbours (*śakya-sāmantaḥ durbala-sāmantaḥ*).

c8.3.3

It should have abundance of agricultural land, being not too marshy, or rocky, or dry, or undulating, or jungly, nor should it be exposed to the depredations of wild tribes (*kaṇṭaka-śreṇī*). It should be *kānta*, i.e. ‘endowed with all works and facilities of public utility and convenience such as provision of shade-giving and fruit-growing trees, gardens of medicinal plants, rivers, lakes, tanks, and resthouses’ (for which Asoka was so famous). It should be further possessed of abundance of fertile lands (*sītā*), mines yielding gold and precious stones (*khanirvajrādimani suvarṇādyākaraḥ*); vegetable gardens and timber forests and also forests of elephants, grazing grounds for cattle (*govyaḥ*), lands for settlements (*paurusheya*), reserves for hunters and foresters (*guptagocharo lubdhakādirakshitabhūmiḥ*) and abundance of livestock (*paśumān*). It should be independent of rainfall in its own supply of waters from its rivers (*adevamātṛikaḥ*). It should be possessed of roads of traffic by water and land. It should be rich in valuable merchandise and manufactures of various kinds (*sāra-chitra-bahu-paṇya*). Its people should be capable of bearing the burden of an adequate army and taxation (*daṇḍakara-sahaḥ*). It should have an industrious agricultural population (*karmasīla-karshaka*), a body of able administrators.

c8.3.4

It should have a vast population belonging to the lower castes or the aboriginal tribes who may aid in the development of its arts and crafts (*avara-varṇa-prāyaḥ adhama-varṇa-bahulaḥ*). It may be noted that Manu welcomes this kind of population in a country to form the artisan classes “whose hand was always pure (*nityaṁ śuddhaḥ kāruka-hastaḥ*) [V. 129].” Lastly, the prosperity and future of a country ultimately must depend upon the quality of its people, its loyalty and character (*bhaktaśuchi-manushya*). No better picture can be given of India than the one given here by Kauṭilya.

c8.4

**Megasthenes on India as a Country.** It is interesting to note that Megasthenes has left a description of India and its natural and economic resources, which corresponds closely to that of Kauṭilya. He has observed : “India has many huge mountains which abound in fruit trees of every kind and many vast plains of great fertility, intersected by a multitude of rivers. The greater part of the soil is under irrigation and bears two crops in a year. The country teems at the same time with animals of all sorts, beasts of the field and fowls of the air, of all different degrees of strength and size. It is prolific besides in elephants. The Indians are well skilled in arts. They inhale a pure air and drink the very finest water.

c8.5

“And while the soil bears on its surface all kinds of fruits which are known to cultivation, it has also underground numerous veins of all sorts of metals, for it contains much gold and silver, and copper and iron in no small quantity which are employed in making articles of use and ornaments, as well as the implements and accoutrements of war.

c8.6

“In addition to cereals, there grow throughout India much millet which is kept well watered by the profusion of river streams, and much pulse of different sorts, and rice also, as well as many other plants useful for food. It is accordingly affirmed that famine has never visited India, and that there has never been a general scarcity in the supply of nourishing food.

c8.7

"The fruits, moreover, of spontaneous growth, and the exculent roots which grow in marshy places and are of varied sweetness, afford abundant sustenance for man. The fact is that almost all the plains in the country have a moisture which is alike genial, whether it is derived from the rivers, or from the rains of the summer season, which are wont to fall every year at a stated period with surprising regularity."

c8.8

Treasury. The next vital factor of the State is the strength of its Treasury (*kośasampat*) built upon the basis of a sound and just system of taxation (*dharmādhigataḥ*), abundance of gold and silver, precious stones and gold coins (*hiraṇya*), so as to be able to sustain the country against calamities of long duration such as famines and the like (*dīrghāmapyāpadamanāyatīṁ saheteti kośasampat*) [VI. I].

c8.9

Army. As regards the army, Kauṭilya prefers it to be hereditary (*pitṛipaitāmaho*), well paid, and contented, recruited from householders (*bhṛita-putradāraḥ*), experienced in many battles (*bahu-yuddhaḥ*), proficient in all the arts of war, completely identified with the king, and mainly composed of Kshatriyas [*Ib.*].

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Kauṭilya concludes with the following wise saying: "Even if the king is possessed of a small territory (*alpadeśopi*), if he is possessed of the other elements of sovereignty, he will make himself invincible and will be able to conquer the whole earth [*Ib.*]." This is an incentive to the conquests which Kauṭilya had in view for his protege, Chandragupta.

c8.11

Powers reserved to the King. It may be noted that of the several elements making up the State, the king was to retain in his own hands his ultimate control over two elements viz., *Kośa* and *Daṇḍaśakti*, the power of purse and the military, by which he will be able to prevail over *Amātyas* or ministers, in case they are disloyal to him. The disloyalty of ministers is described as an internal trouble which is far more dangerous to the State than any of its troubles from an external source and is described as a snake (*Ahibhayāt abhyantaraḥ kopo bāhyakopāt pāpīyān* | *Antaramātya-kopaśchāntaḥ kopāt* | *Tasmāt kośa-daṇḍa-śaktimātmasamsthāṁ kurvīta*) [VIII. 2].

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Famine Code. The king also exercised his extraordinary powers for the welfare of his people against emergencies like famines (*durbhiksha*). First, he is to help the people with a supply of seeds and provisions (*bhakta*). Secondly, he may provide for employment of the people by undertaking construction of public works such as buildings (*durgakarma*) or bridges (*setu*). Failing this, he is to supply the people with food (*bhakta-saṁvibhāgam*). Or he may remove the famine-stricken to another country for the time being (*deśanikshepaṁ vā*) or he may seek the help of a friendly State. Or he may contract (*karśana*) his population by emigrating its unemployed portion to a foreign country (*nirupayogajanānāṁ tatkāle deśāntarapreshaṇena alpatva-karaṇam*). Or he may arrange a wholesale emigration of his people to another flourishing country; or take recourse to the sea-coast or a country with lakes and tanks as sources of fish, tortoise or birds upon which to live. Or he may extend agriculture. Or he may employ his people on hunting and fishing [IV, 3].

c8.13

Patañjali mentions an interesting tradition about the Mauryas that they, in need, took to the manufacture of images of deities, and to trading in them as a source of profit (*Mauryaiḥ hiraṇyārthibhiḥ archāḥ prakalpitāḥ*). The images thus fashioned and sold as articles of trade were named differently from the images that were worshipped: e.g., *Śivaka* instead of *Śiva* [Patañjali on Pāṇini, V. 3, 99].

c8.14

It may be recalled against these extraordinary measures for raising revenue that the Maurya empire had to face a twelve year's famine, as already described.

c8.15

**Hierarchy of Officers.** It will appear from the above conception and description of the various needs of a country and the factors upon which its economic and political progress depends that there should be devised an elaborate system of administration, and a complex machinery to cope with the problems of government. Kauṭilya has well said [I, 7]: "Administration cannot be the work of one man, just as one wheel cannot drive a car" (*Sahāyasādhyaṁ rājatvaṁ chakramekaṁ na vartate*). Therefore, the king must carry on the administration with the help of a hierarchy of agents of different grades and jurisdictions extending and descending up to the village.

c8.16

**Normal Administrative Machinery.** We have already referred to the many Viceroys and Governors whom the Mauryan emperor placed in charge of the different provinces and local governments among which the burden of Imperial Administration from headquarters was conveniently distributed. But it is to be noted that each such Viceroyalty or Governorship was functioning like a State by itself after the pattern and standard laid down for it in the time-honoured science and theory of Hindu polity. Every State in the Hindu scheme of polity thus adopted a prescribed system of government and corresponded to the type and structure of administrative machinery laid down as the standard.

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The normal administrative machinery prescribed for the government of a State was made up of the following elements, viz., (1) the Sovereign, (2) the Viceroys and Governors functioning as deputy kings as the sovereign's representatives, (3) the Ministers, (4) the Heads of departments, (5) the subordinate civil service, and (6) Officers in charge of rural administration, of the villages. In addition to these, there was, of course, the branch of administration dealing with the Military in all its Departments. The administrative system of Chandragupta will, therefore, be described with reference to the aforesaid elements in the order in which they are mentioned.

c8.18

Counsellors (*Mantrīs*). The policy and plan of administration count more than its details. The first duty that awaits the king as he arises from sleep is, as we have seen, his contemplation of the policy which must inform his government (*mantraṁ adhyāsīta*). As Kauṭilya points out [I. 15], all administrative work is preceded by the determination of policy (*mantra-pūrvāḥ sarvārambhāḥ*). At the same time, it is recognized that the policy must be hatched in secret, while it cannot be determined by the king himself. Thus the question is, How many should the king take into confidence and consult as his counsellors or advisers? Therefore, Bharadvāja thought that secrecy of policy would be impossible except with one counsellor. Viśālāksha answers him by saying that it might be *mantragupti* but not *mantrasiddhi*. Success of policy is more important than its secrecy. "Therefore," says he, "the king should take counsel with a number of wise men." According to the School of Parāśara, however, this is only *mantrajñāna* but not *mantrasaṁrakshaṇam*, that is, 'ascertaining advice, but not keeping counsel.' They rather advise consulting a minister on a hypothetical case. According to Piśuna, such a minister will not take the matter seriously but will give his advice half-heartedly. Advice is responsible only on business that is pending. By this is secured both good counsel (*mantrabuddhi*) as well as its secrecy (*gupti*). Kauṭilya objects to this method as being uncertain (*anavasthā*). He recommends the appointment of permanent Advisors of the king, either three or four in number. He does not recommend two for fear of their combination against the king. It should of course be open to the king to take counsel with only one or two of them according to need (*deśakālakāryavaśena*).

c8.19

**Objectives of Mantra or Policy.** Mantra is described to be *panchāṅga*. The policy of government is bound up with the consideration of the following five subjects. The first will be Ways and Means of ensuring the defence of the country and proper foreign relations (*karmaṇāmārambhopāyaḥ*). The second is the resources of the State in men and material (*purushadravya-sampat*). The third is the determination of time and place for action (*deśakālāvibhāgaḥ*). The fourth subject is provision against unforeseen calamities (*vinipāta-pratīkāraḥ*). The fifth is successful prosecution of administrative measures (*kāryasiddhiḥ*).

c8.20

**Council of Ministers** (*Mantriparishad*). Besides this small body of Counsellors or Advisors (*Mantriṇaḥ*), the king must have a regular Council of Ministers (*Mantriparishad*). The Mānavas fix its number at 12, the Bārhaspatyas at 16, the Ośanasas at 20 but, according to Kauṭilya, it should be as required. Kauṭilya is evidently for a large Council. He cites with approval Indra's Council of 1000 Rishis. Though of only two eyes, He is known as one of thousand eyes, for these Rishis are his eyes (*tasmād imaṁ dvyakshaṁ sahasrākshamāhuḥ*) [I.15]. Kauṭilya mentions as one of the strong points of kingship the strength of his Council or *Parishad*. In his opinion, a king who is an *akshudraparishatka* lacks an important source of his power [VI. 1]. We may note that much earlier than the time of Chandragupta, Pāṇini, who did not live later than 500 B.C., refers to the *Parishad* as an accompaniment of kingship. He states [IV. 4, 44] that the members of a *Parishad* should be called *Pārishadyas*, while the king whose position was strengthened by his *Parishad* was called *Parishadvalaḥ* [V. 2, 112].

c8.21

**Procedure of Business in Council.** The procedure of the king's business in the Council is also indicated by Kauṭilya. As has been already stated, the king had to transact some classes of administrative business with his whole Council of Ministers in attendance. For instance, the king was not to give interviews to the ambassadors from foreign kings without being attended by his Council of Ministers. Generally, he was to transact all administrative business along with the Ministers in attendance (*Āsannaissaha kāryāṇi paśyeta*). In the case of Ministers who were not present, he sought their advice by despatch of letters (*anāsannaissaha patrasampreshaṇena mantrayeta*). In the case of any urgent business cropping up, the king summoned to his presence both his Advisors (*Mantriṇo*) and his Council of Ministers (*Mantri-parishadaṁ*) to whom he would explain it (*brūyāt*). He would generally act on the opinion of the majority in that joint meeting of his Counsellors and Ministers (*tatra yadbhūyishṭhāḥ brūyustat kuryāt*), or whatever was considered to be contributory to success (*kāryasiddhikaram*).

Asoka's Council

c8.s1.1

The inscriptions of Asoka mention his *Parisat* [R.E. III and VI]. Asoka speaks of his reference of urgent matters (*āchāyike* or *atiyāyike*=*ātyayika* of Kauṭilya) to his Council (*Parisā*) of Ministers (*Mahāmātras*), and of their debate or deliberation (*vivādo nijhati*) thereon (*tāya aṭhāya*).

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It may also be noted that, according to *Divyāvadāna* (p. 372, Cowell's ed.), Bindusāra (Chandragupta's son) had as many as 500 *Amātyas*.

c8.s1.3

Patañjali, in his *Mahābhāshya*, mentions *Chandragupta-Sabhā* [Gloss on I. 1, 68].

Secretary to Council

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The Council or *Mantri-Parishad* had its Secretary in charge of its office. He is called *Mantri-Parishadadhyaksha* [I. 12].

Greek Accounts

c8.s3.1

We may now consider the Greek evidence on the subject of the king's Council.

Diodorus

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Diodorus, in his epitome of Megasthenes, mentions "the Councillors and Assessors who deliberate on public affairs. It is the smallest class, looking to number, but the most respected, on account of the high character and the wisdom of its members; for from their rank the Advisers of the king are taken, and the Treasurers of the State, and the arbiters, who settle disputes. The generals of the army also, and the Chief Magistrates usually belong to this class."

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**Strabo.** Strabo [XV, I, 46-9] referring to the "Councillors and Assessors" of the king states that "to them belong the highest posts of government, the tribunals of justice, and the general administration of public affairs."

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**Arrian.** Arrian [*Indika*, XI, 12] says: "There are the Councillors of the State who advise the king or the magistrate of the self-governed cities, in the management of public affairs. In point of numbers, this is a small class, but it is distinguished by superior wisdom and justice, and hence enjoy the prerogative of choosing governors, chiefs of provinces, deputy governors, superintendents of the treasury, generals of the army, admirals of the navy, controllers, and commissioners, who superintend agriculture."

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**Council in Republics.** It is to be noted that, according to Arrian, the Council of Ministers was a part both of monarchical and republican constitutions. We have already seen how many were the republican peoples who had taken a prominent part in the politics of Mauryan India.

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**Correspondence to 'Amatyas'.** We have also to observe that the Greek descriptions of the Councillors and Assessors probably correspond to what Kauṭilya says about the class of officers called by the general name of *Amātyas*. It is out of these *Amātyas* that the Ministers themselves are recruited, as also the Heads of Departments, on the basis of certain tests and qualifications. Thus the body of *Amātyas* made up the Civil Service of the country, to which were recruited persons possessing the highest qualifications.

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**Mantri proper or Prime Minister.** The full scheme of Kauṭilya's administrative arrangements may be thus stated. Firstly, the king depends most upon what is called his *Mantrī*, the Chief Minister, or the Prime Minister, as well as his preceptor or *Purohita*. They were of the first rank in administration. Next to them come the king's Counsellors or Advisors who are called *Mantrīs* or Ministers, and the other class of Mantrīs who form the *Mantriparishad*. All these come under the general class of officers called *Amātyas*.

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**His Rank.** It would appear that the rank of the Chief Minister as the Mantrī proper is indicated by the payment of the highest salary to him, a salary of 48,000 *paṇas*. The salary attached to a Mantrī, who was a member of the *Mantriparishad*, was only 12,000 *paṇas*.

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**Qualifications.** As regards the qualifications of the Chief Minister, it is laid down that he must be a native of the country (*Jānapada*). He should be senior in age (*pragalbha*), possessed of eloquence (*vājmī*), resourceful (*pratipattimān*), of unimpeachable honesty, of good physique.

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*Agrāmātya.* It is interesting to note that, according to *Divyāvadāna*, Bindusāra, Chandragupta's son, had Khallāṭaka as his Prime Minister called *Agrāmātya*, and that the *Agrāmātya* of Asoka was Rādhagupta.

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Purohita as Minister of first rank. As Regards the *Purohita*, he should be proficient in the Vedas and the six *Aṅgas*, in Jyotisha (*Daiva*), in the science of Omens (*Nimitta*), and also in the science of Polity (*Daṇḍanīti*), and the practices of Atharvaveda. "Him the king should follow as a pupil his preceptor, a son his father, and a servant his master. Thus brought up by Brāhmaṇas and trained in statecraft by a qualified Minister, and disciplined by the precepts of the Sāstras, the king will conquer the invincible [I. 9]."

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Public Service Commission. There is a constitutional importance attaching to the offices of the Prime Minister and the Purohita. It appears that the king appointed by himself the *Amātyas* who should serve him as Ministers or *Mantrīs* either as (a) the Prime Minister (*Mantrī* proper) and Chief Purohita or as (b) the group of three or four Mantrīs who should be always ready to hand (*Āsanna*) as the king's Counsellors or Advisors, or as (c) Ministers who would constitute the *Mantriparishad* or Council of Ministers. All appointments other than those of the Ministers of these three classes were made by the king acting with his two Ministers, the Prime Minister, and the High Priest (*Mantripurohita-sakhaḥ*) [I. 10]. Thus these two Ministers and the king formed an inner Council functioning as a sort of a Public Service Commission for making the higher administrative appointments, such as the Heads of the basis of both mental and moral qualifications out of candidates who were considered eligible for appointment as *Amātyas* [I. 8]. They were tested by temptations pertaining to *Dharma* (Duty), *Artha* (Wealth), *Kāma* (Moral Character) and *Bhaya* (Fear) [I. 10].

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It is interesting to note that Megasthenes also mentions that it was the Council which appointed all higher officers of the State including provincial Governors.

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**Tests for Appointments.** In the first, a priest is dismissed and is set upon *Amātyas* whom he incites to rebel against the king on the ground that he is unrighteous (*Adhārmikaḥ*). In the second, a general is dismissed for supposed embezzlement to tempt *Amātyas* by money for conspiring to murder the king. For the third test, a woman spy in the guise of an ascetic (*parivrājikā*) is employed to corrupt the *Mahāmātras*, telling each in turn that the Queen is in love with him. For the fourth test, Ministers are tempted to enter into a plot against the king's life. [*Ib*].

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**Principle of Selection: Appointments to Courts of Justice.** The rule of appointment is that those Ministers who have stood the religious test should be appointed as judges, both civil (*Dharmasthīya*), and criminal (*Kaṇṭakaśodhana*) [*Ib.*].

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**Revenue and Stores.** *Amātyas* who proved themselves above bribery should be appointed as Heads of Departments dealing with Revenue and Stores (*Samāhartṛi Sannidhātṛi-nichayakarmasu*) [*Ib.*].

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**Harem.** *Amātyas* who have shown themselves [...] flesh would be the best officers to take charge of Departments concerning women. They are to be placed in charge of the king’s harems both in capital, and also in the outlying parts (*Bāhyābhyantara-vihārarakshāsu*) [*Ib.*]. The king’s harems outside the capital were meant for the king’s female companions (*Bhoginyaḥ*). The harem of the Palace accommodated the Queens known as *Devīs* [Commentator].

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Asoka's Harems. It is interesting to note in this connection that Asoka in one of his inscriptions [R.E. V] speaks of his harems (*orodhana*) and those of his brothers, and also the residences of his sisters, situated both in the capital at Pāṭaliputra (*hida Pāṭalipute cha*) and also in the outlying towns (*bahiresu cha nagaresu*). Asoka also refers to his second Queen (*Dutīyāye devīye*) named Kāruvākī, mother of Prince Tivara, and to her residence at the *bāhira nagara* of Kauśāmbī. In his Pillar Edict VIII, Asoka makes another mention of his Queens and harems both at Pāṭaliputra and in the provinces (*diśāsu*) and also refers to his sons, whether the sons of his Queens (*Devikumāras*) or of his other wives (*Dārakas*). Asoka also, following Kauṭilya’s injunctions, places special officers called *Dharmamahāmātras* in charge of these harems. One is tempted to suggest that the very title of these officers called *Dharmamahāmātras* is due to the fact that these must have been tested by the *Dharma-upadhā* or *Kāma-upadhā* of Kauṭilya (*Kāma* being taken to be included in the *Dharma* test). In his Rock Edict XII also, Asoka creates special officers to take charge of the interests of the women-folk and designates them as *Strī-Adhyaksha-Mahāmātras*. Apart from these Inscriptions referring to the many harems of Asoka, we know from *Mahāvaṁsa* of Asoka marrying the lady called Vedisa-Mahādevī-Śākyakumārī when he was serving as Viceroy at Ujjain. She did not follow Asoka as king to Pāṭaliputra where he lived with his chief Queen (*Agramahishī*), Asandhimitrā, but she lived on at Vedisa which was thus another outlying town where Asoka had a harem [V. 85 and XX].

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**Appointment of King's Bodyguard.** Lastly, there were the officers who would prove themselves to be proof against fear, and would not by any means be coerced into disloyalty to the king. These ardent loyalists, dare-devils, and desperados would be chosen to constitute the king's bodyguard (*Āsanna-kāryeshu*).

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**Out of the way Posts.** Officers who fail in one or the other of the above tests were to be employed at a distance as Superintendents of Mines, Timber or Elephant forests, or Manufactories (*Karmānta*).

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**Mantris.** *Amātyas* who successfully stood all the above four tests were eligible for appointment to the exalted office of Mantrī or Ministers of aforesaid three grades.

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**Ordinary Employees.** It is also laid down that persons qualified to be *Amātyas* but not tested and tried will be employed in the general departments (*sāmānya-adhikaraṇa*).

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**Ambassadors, Secretaries and Heads of Departments.** *Amātyas* were also eligible for appointment as Ministers Plenipotentiary (*nisṛishṭārthaḥ*). An *Amātya* not fully qualified to be Ambassador was employed on special missions (*parimitārthaḥ*) or as bearer of royal writs (*śāsanaharaḥ*) [I. 16]. *Amātyas* were also appointed as *Lekhakas* or the king's Secretaries in charge of his correspondence [II. 10], and also as *Adhyakshas* or Heads of Departments [II. 9].

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Intelligence Department. Kauṭilya further prescribes [I. 11] that the king, acting with his ministers, will make appointments to the Intelligence Department of administration. The appointing authority for this rather difficult Department is specified as *Amātyavarga* of proved qualifications (*upādhibhiśśuddha*). This should mean the group of Ministers including the Prime Minister or *Mantrī*, the Purohita, and the king's Advisors aforesaid. For it is laid down [I. 10] that those *Amātyas* who were found competent by all possible tests were appointed as Mantrīs (*Sarvopadhāśuddhān Mantriṇaḥ kuryāt*).

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The King's extraordinary powers. It may be noted that the king, besides reserving to himself the power of making the higher appointments of Ministers, Informers, and Heads of Departments, had to reserve to himself certain extraordinary powers against emergencies arising out of internal (*abhyantara*) or external (*bāhya*) troubles (*kopa*). The internal trouble is more serious for the State, and has to be put down by drastic measures. It is stated that such a trouble arises out of disloyalty or disaffection of the king's highest officers namely (1) *Mantrī* (Prime Minister) (2) *Purohita* (3) *Senāpati* and (4) *Yuvarāja*. If the king is at fault, he must acknowledge and abandon it (*Ātma-dosha-tyāgena*). Otherwise, his only remedy is to imprison (*saṁrodhana*) or to banish (*avasrāvaṇa*) them. In the case of the rebellious Crown Prince, it may even extend to extreme punishment (*Nigraha*). The disaffection of other officers (*Amātyas*) is to be dealt with by suitable means (*yathārhamupāyān prāyuñjīta*).

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The sources of external trouble are stated to arise out of disaffection of officers named (1) *Rāshṭramukhya* (2) *Antapāla* (3) *Āṭavika* (4) and the subdued king (*daṇḍopanata*). The remedy is stated to be that one may be set against the other (*tamanyonyenāvagrāhayeta*) [IX. 3].

Rules of Administration and Service

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The rules by which the Heads of Departments are to administer them are indicated by Kauṭilya [II. 9]. The fundamental duty of each departmental Head is to see that he can balance the budget of his Department so as to be able to realise the receipts of revenue estimated. Heads of Departments are called *Adhyakshas* by Kauṭilya and also under the general name of *Upayuktas* or superior officers (*yuktānāṁ upari niyuktāḥ*). The Head of a Department is to be appointed by his fitness (*śaktitaḥ*) for it. He should work according to instructions (*yathāsandeśam*) and should not commence any costly schemes without previous sanction except to meet emergencies 'due to fire or flood.' Strict discharge of duty or work done better than instruction is to be rewarded with promotion and honours (*sthānamānau*). One should not realise more than estimated revenue. For this will be "eating up the country" (*janapadaṁ bhakshayati*). The main business of the Head of a Department is to check the accounts of income and expenditure both by general and detailed examination.

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It will be seen that most of the Heads of Departments are to work at mofussil centres and in the interior of the country. There the Head of a Department is to keep eye on people who are drifting towards bankruptcy by spending away all their ancestral assets (*mūlaharaḥ*), or those who are spendthrifts and do not save but live from hand to mouth (*tādāttika*), or those who are contemptible misers (*kadarya*) and save by famishing themselves and their dependents (*yobhṛityātmapīḍābhyāmupachinotyartham*). He should particularly keep a watch on the monetary transactions of the rich capitalists and see how they hide their wealth by hoarding it in their homes in secret places under-ground or in holes in pillars (*sva veśmani bhūgarta-stambhakoṭarādishu*); or by depositing with others, urban or rural people (*avanidhatte paurajānapadeshu*); or by spiriting it away to foreign countries (*avasrāvayati paravishaye*). Such people are potential dangers to the State to whose prosperity they do not make their due contributions by evading and avoiding taxation.

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Since the chief concern of the Head of a Department is thus finance and solvency, he is to be associated with a number of appropriate officers to assist him in his work. These are mentioned as Accountant (*Saṅkhyāyaka*), Scribe (*Lekhaka*), Examiner of coins (*Rūpadarśaka*), Treasurer (*Nīvīgrāhaka*), and their superior officer (*Uttarādhyaksha-auparika*). These superior officers are to be recruited from retired military officers (*Vṛiddhabhāvādinā yuddhākshamatvam*).

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It is also provided that each Department should have a number of sectional Heads (*bahumukhyam*), but they should be appointed on a temporary and not a permanent basis (*anityam*). 'Permanent service by its security is liable to make its incumbent independent and mischievous, while the country people (*Jānapadāḥ*) have no interest in reporting his defects.'

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The authorities are asked to guard against embezzlement to which government servants dealing with large amounts of receipts are liable. It is difficult to detect embezzlement, just as it is difficult to detect fishes drinking in water as they swim in it. Officers found guilty of corruption or embezzlement are to be proceeded against and made to refund the public money embezzled (*Āsrāvayechchopachitān*). They will be further punished by being degraded to lower posts (*viparyasyechcha karmasu viparyasyet vyatyayena niveśayet uchchakarmasthānebhyovaropya nīchakarmasthaneshu niyuñjīta*). The two punishments for embezzlement are thus (1) *Āsrāvaṇa* (refunding) and (2) *Viparyasana* (degrading). On the other hand, those officers who distinguish themselves by not merely abstaining from embezzlement of public revenue but even by increasing it in accordance with law (*nyāyataḥ*) will be made permanent in their service (*nityādhikārāḥ*).

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The rules of Service show that there was a period of probation for every government servant, which was followed by his confirmation on approved work.

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**Grades of Pay and Service.** The entire Civil Service was of different grades and scales of salary attaching to each grade. Kauṭilya gives an account of these grades [V. 3] which very well show the vastness and complexity of the administrative machinery that was created to look after the manifold interests and requirements of the country. Kauṭilya, however, lays down the rule of administration that its establishment charges should not exceed a fourth of total provincial revenue (*Durga-janapadaśaktyā bhṛityakarma samudayapādena sthāpayet*) [V. 3]. His account of the grades of officers in terms of salary may be thus presented:

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Grade of salary 48,000 *paṇas

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1. Prime Minister (*Mantrī*).
2. Chief Priest (*Purohita*).
3. Commander-in-chief of the army (*Senāpati*).
4. Crown-prince (*Yuvarāja*).

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The following members of the royal family and household also received the same allowance: the king's Preceptor (*Āchārya*), sacrificial priest (*Ṛitvik*), Queen (*Rāja-Mahishī*), and the Dowager Queen (*Rāja-mātā*).

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Grade 24,000 *paṇas

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1. The Warden of the Palace (*Dauvārika*).
2. The Overseer of the Harem (*Antarvaṁśika*).
3. The Officer in-charge of military camps (*Praśāstṛi*).
4. The Collector-General (*Samāhartṛi*).
5. The Treasurer-General (*Sannidhātṛi*).

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Grade 12,000 *paṇas

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1. The Prefect of the city (*Paura-vyāvahārika*).
2. Superintendent of Agriculture and Forests (*Kārmāntika*).

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3. The Members of the Council (*Mantri-parishat*).
4. Provincial Governor (*Rāshṭra-pāla*).
5. The Warden of the Marches or Frontiers (*Antapāla*).
6. The Commandant of the Cavalry (*Kumāra Aśvānucharaḥ*).
7. Commander of a Company of Eighty (*Kumāra-mātā aśītijananetā*).
8. Commandant of the Infantry (*Nāyaka Padātinetā*).

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Grade 8,000 paṇas

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1. Chiefs of the warrior-clans (*Śreṇī-mukhyāḥ*).
2. The commanders of elephants, chariots, cavalry and infantry (*Hastyaśva-ratha-mukhyāḥ*).
3. The Judge (*Pradeshṭā*).

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Grade 4,000 paṇas

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1. The Superintendents of Infantry, Horses, Chariots and Elephants (*Pattyaśva-ratha-hastyadhyakshāḥ*).
2. The Superintendents of (a) Timber-forests (b) Elephant-forests (*Dravya-hasti-vana-pālāḥ*).

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Grade 2,000 paṇas

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1. The teacher of Charioteering (*Rathika*).
2. The physician and surgeon (*Chikitsaka*).
3. The trainer of horses for the army (*Aśva-damaka*).
4. The carpenter or mechanic for the army (*Vardhakiḥ*).

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5. The rearers of animals (*Yoniposhakāḥ*).
6. The trainer of elephants (*Anīkasthaḥ*).

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Grade 1,000 *paṇas

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1. The Foreteller (*Kārtāntika*).
2. The Diviner (*Naimittika*).
3. The Astrologer (*Mauhūrtika*).
4. The Reader of Purāṇas (*Paurāṇika*).
5. The Charioteer (*Sūta*).
6. The Bard or Ministrel (*Māgadha*).
7. The Priestly Staff (*Purohita-purushāḥ*).
8. All Departmental Superintendents (*Sarvādhyakshāḥ*).

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Grade 1000-500 *paṇas

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1. Chief (*Ārya*) of a class.
2. Skilled trainer of untamed horses and elephants (*Yuktārohaka*).
3. Experienced Detective (*Māṇavaka*). (recruited from criminal classes).
4. Builder in stone (*Śailakhanaka*) or State Sculptor.
5. Teachers of Music, preceptors, and specialists in *Dharma*-and *Artha-śāstras* to receive above as honorarium, as their services are available for the public (*Sarvopasthāyina āchāryā vidyāvantaścha pūjāvetanāni*).

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Grade 500 *paṇas

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1. Foot-soldiers (*Pādāta*).
2. Accountants (*Saṅkhyāyaka*).
3. Clerical staff (*Lekhaka*).
4. Artists (*Śilpavantaḥ*).
5. Directors of Music (*Tūrya-karāḥ*).

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Grade 250 *paṇas

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Musicians (*Kuśīlavāḥ*).

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Grade 120 *paṇas

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Skilled artisans (*Kāru-śilpī*).

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Grade 60 *paṇas

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1. Menial staffs (*Parichāraka*) in charge of animals and birds and their chiefs (*Pāri-karmika*).
2. The king's personal attendants (*Aupasthāyikaśarīra-parichāraka*).
3. Cowherds (*Gopālakas*).
4. Labourers (*Vishṭi*).
5. Trappers (*Bandhaka*).

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Couriers (*Dūtas*) are to be paid ten *paṇas* for carrying messages up to ten yojanas; twenty *paṇas* for a distance up to hundred yojanas.

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Special pay is to be given on occasions of *Rājasūya* to Mantrī and Purohita, which may be three times their usual salary. The king's charioteer is to be paid 1,000 on that occasion.

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Spies of different classes are to get 1,000 *paṇas*.

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The village staff (such as washermen and spies) are to get 500.

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Attendants of spies are to get 250 *paṇas* or more in proportion to work (*prayāsa-vṛiddhavetanā vā*).

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Government servants of grades (*varga*) from 100 to 1,000 are to be placed under *Adhyakshas* who will determine their subsistence, wages, rewards, instructions (*ādeśa*), and assignment of work (*vikshepa*).

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When there is no work (*avikshepa*), they will be transferred to take charge of looking after Government buildings (*rājaparigraha*), fortifications (*durga*), and the defences of the realm (*rāshtrarakshā*).

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**Pensions.** There were some very generous and humane regulations which added to the attractions of the public service. When an officer died in the discharge of his duties, his sons and wives were entitled to a subsistence allowance (*bhakta-vetana*) from the State. Consideration was also shown to such dependents of the deceased officer as were incapacitated from earning their livelihood, e.g. infants, aged and afflicted persons.

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**Payments in Cash or Kind.** Payments of salaries might be made both in cash and kind. When short of money, the king paid the salary in forest produce, cattle, or land for cultivation, together with some cash. But payment in cash was the rule when new colonies or settlements were projected [V. 3].

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It is to be noted that grants of land were also made without the right of alienation (*vikrayādhānavajram*) to officers like (1) *Adhyaksha* (2) *Saṁkhyāyaka* (Accountant) (3) *Gopa* (4) *Sthānika* (5) *Anīkastha* (elephant-trainer) (6) *Chikitsaka* (physician) (7) *Aśvadamaka* (trainer of horses) and (8) *Jaṁghārika* (*Jāṁghika*, courier) [II. 1].

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Special scales of pay were granted in accordance with qualifications and administrative efficiency shown (*vidyākarmabhyāṁ bhaktavetanaviśeshaṁ cha kuryāt*).

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These were the Civil Service regulations which determined and governed the appointments, pay, prospects, and grades of the men who carried on the complex and difficult work of administration from day to day.

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