Shudras in Ancient India: A Social History of the Lower Order down to circa A.D. 600 c12.334

c12.334

This shows that these tribal people lived outside brāhmaṇic settlements. Certainly the caṇḍālas and śvapacas lived outside. Food vessels used by them were discarded for ever. Their sole property consisted of dogs and donkeys; they took their food in broken dishes, used ornaments of iron and clothes of dead people, and wandered from place to place.¹ They were not permitted to appear in towns and villages at night, where they could work only during the day.² Manu provides that the caṇḍālas and śvapacas should be distinguished by marks at the king's command.³ Rāghavānanda's explanation that the caṇḍālas should be branded on the forehead and other parts of the body is not corroborated by any contemporary evidence. Possibly the caṇḍāla and śvapacas were required to put on some kind of uniforms to distinguish them from the rest of the people.⁴ They could not enter into any transactions with others regarding marriage, debt, loan etc., which could take place only with the members of their own castes. Manu ordains that members of the higher varṇas should not give them even grain with their own hands.⁵