An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c7: 2 Archaeobotany

An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c7

Language: English

v1.c7.s1 2.1 Pollens — 1 part
v1.c7.s2 2.2 Cereals — 11 parts
v1.c7.s3 2.3 Fibre Plants — 6 parts
v1.c7.s4 2.4 Fruits, Nuts, etc. — 12 parts
v1.c7.s5 2.5 Legumes (Pulses) — 10 parts
v1.c7.s6 2.6 Oilseeds — 4 parts
v1.c7.s7 2.7 Weeds and Forage Plants — 7 parts
v1.c7.s8 2.8 Miscellaneous — 5 parts
v1.c7.s9 2.9 Wood Remains — 29 parts

2 Archaeobotany

2.1 Pollens

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The non-availability of archaeological sediments and differential preservation of pollen make pollen a highly undependable evidence. Large-sized pollen is often ascribed to cereals, though some Indian wild grasses too have it. Pollen evidence for deforestation, cereal and culture pollen and recovery of forest in sediments of proven Neolithic context may be taken as evidence for an attempt towards shifting cultivation, but other causes cannot be ruled out. Undisputed evidence from India is lacking. [7.4.]

2.2 Cereals

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*2.2.1 Eleusine coracana* (finger millet, *ragi*). Found at HALLUR, PAIYAMPALLI (Neolithic) [4.6]; SURKOTADA (Harappa [4.9]); BHOKARDAN, NEVASA (early historical). These constitute the only world records, but it is believed that the cereal originated in Africa, where several wild and weedy forms, including *E. africana*, its immediate ancestor, are found. The Indian wild *E. indica* is genetically incompatible to be its ancestor.

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*2.2.2 Hordeum vulgare* (barley). CHIRAND (Neolithic); Harappa, KALIBANGAN, Mohenjo-daro (Harappa, at the second site the grains being small-sized owing to growth on poor sandy soil); ATRANJIKHERA (OCW [4.12] and later); INAMGAON, NAVDATOLI (Chalcolithic); NEVASA, NOH, TER (early historical). Two kinds, *H. vulgare* var. *nudum* (Mohenjo-daro) and *H. vulgare* var. *hexastichum* (Chanhu-daro), have been identified.

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The distribution in time and space shows its earliest occurrence in w. parts of the subcontinent during the Harappa period [4.9], later in Ganga plains at ATRANJIKHERA and CHIRAND. Subsequent to the decline of the Harappa culture it diffused into the Deccan through the Ganga plains. The world's earliest records of cultivated barley, dated 8000 B.C., come from w. Asia, where its wild progenitor is also known.

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*2.2.3 Oryza* (rice). VAIDYAPUR, CHIRAND (¹⁴C dates erratic), KOLDIHAWA (where the overlying Chalcolithic [4.14] has ¹⁴C date of 4530 B.C.) and ORIUP (all Neolithic); LOTHAL, RANGPUR (Harappa); ATRANJIKHERA (OCW); AHAR, MAHISDAL, NAVDATOLI, Phase II (Chalcolithic); AMBARI, INAMGAON, NOH, PANDU RAJAR DHIBI, ROPAR, SONPUR (first half of 1st millennium B.C.); BHOKARDAN, HASTINĀPURA, KHOKRAKOT, KAUṆḌINYAPURA, NAGDA, PĀṬALIPUTRA, PAUNAR, PAUNI, PURANA QILA, RAJGIR, TER, UJJAIN (Garh Kālikā) (second half of same millennium); Kangra fort, KOLHAPUR, NEVASA, RANGMAHAL, TER (still later). In the lower Deccan the first occurrence is at HALLUR (Iron Age), followed in s. India by KUNNATTUR (Megalithic), Pariyapuram (early centuries A.D.). The records show its oldest occurrence in the Ganga plains, its subsequent diffusion towards w. and e. and from w. to c. India, Saurashtra and Maharashtra via e. Rajasthan. [But see 4.6.4.] Imprints on pottery suggest profuse use of grains and chaff as binding material in clay before firing.

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Whether the CHIRAND specimen is wild or cultivated is not certain. While phases of domestication of wild rice are still obscure, the cereal was used widely since Neolithic times in the Ganga plains (but restrictedly in the barley-based economy at Neolithic CHIRAND) and e. Rajasthan. It penetrated into the barley-wheat-based economy in c. India (NAVDATOLI) and Maharashtra in or after 1300 B.C. and the millet-based economy of s. India in 1000 B.C. It was unknown to the Harappans except in Gujarat (LOTHAL, RANGPUR).

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It remains undetermined if the oldest record from Thailand (Non Nok Tha, 4000 B.C., dates erratic) was wild or cultivated. A Chinese record from Ch'ing-p'u Prefecture of Kiangsu Province is dated 3995±105 B.C by bristle-cone pine dating. [The specimen has been dated 3395±105 B.C. by ¹⁴C method. The oldest specimen, dated between 5895±115 and 6310±100 B.P. by ¹⁴C method, comes from Yu-yao Prefecture of Chekiang Province. Information from Dr T.T. Chang of International Rice Res. Inst.] The cereal was possibly domesticated independently in several countries including the Ganga plains, s. China and s.-e. Asia. Man's acquaintance with wild rices apparently predates domestication as suggested by imprints on potsherds. Grains of wild perennial rices are still gathered by aboriginal tribes in Jaipur tract of Orissa. Wild paddy (*tinni*, *uri*, *jhara*, *deobhat*) is gathered and eaten by Brahmins on fast days.

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*2.2.4 Pennisetum typhoideum* (pearl millet, *bajra*). RANGPUR (Harappa); AHAR² (Chalcolithic); HALLUR (Iron Age); NEVASA, TER (early historical, at the former in Indo-Roman levels). Suited to arid climates, its original home is believed to be tropical Africa, where record dated 1250 B.C. is known from Neolithic Naghez.

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2.2.5 *Sorghum* (jowar). Mohenjo-daro (Harappa, possibly familiarity); AHAR², INAMGAON (Chalcolithic); BHATKULI, NEVASA, PAUNAR (early and late historical). The earlier records are comparable to *S. vulgare*, an African domesticate, believed to have diffused here.

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2.2.6 *Triticum* (wheat). BURZAHOM, CHIRAND (Neolithic, at the former site indirect evidence coming from seeds of forage plants); Harappa, KALIBANGAN, Mohenjo-daro (Harappa); ATRANJIKHERA (OCW); INAMGAON, KAYATHA, NAVDATOLI, SONGAON (Chalcolithic); BHOKARDAN, NEVASA, TER (early to late historical). Records show its earliest occurrence in w. part of the subcontinent during the Harappa period, somewhat later at CHIRAND and still later in the upper Ganga plains (ATRANJIKHERA). Subsequent to the decline of the Harappa it spread through the Ganga plains to c. India and thence to the Deccan.

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The Indian records are highly evolved hexaploid wheats with a prolonged history of domestication and evolution in Jarmo-Jericho and w. Iran, predating the Indian records by 4000 to 5000 years. The highly drought-resistant shot wheat, *T. sphaerococcum*, originated in n.-w. part of the Indian subcontinent through mutation or deletion of small block of genes of *T. aestivum*. The region between the Himalayas and Hindu Kush is also believed to be the original home of wheat, as wild progenitors still occur there. It probably arrived in the subcontinent via s.-e. Afghanistan (Mundigak, Pd II, c. 3000 B.C.).

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2.2.7 *Zea Mays* (maize, *makka*). Imprints found at KAUNḌINYAPURA in c. 1435. Primitive (living fossil) maize in Sikkim is cytologically different from American or Carribean maize, supporting its pre-Columbian occurrence in the subcontinent, though perhaps it was reintroduced by the Arabs.

2.3 Fibre Plants

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2.3.1 *Boehemeria platyphylla*. ATRANJIKHERA (OCW), where stem fibres have been used in making fishing-nets and cordage.

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2.3.2 *Carthamus tinctorius* (safflower). NEVASA (early historical, Indo-Roman). A rain-fed drought-resistant crop, with original home in the mountainous regions of Abyssinia and Afghanistan.

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2.3.3 *Crotalaria juncea* (*san*). HABBAL (with punch-marked coins).

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2.3.4 *Erianthus munja* (*munj*). Harappa.

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2.3.5 *Gossypium* sp. (cotton). Harappa, Mohenjo-daro (Harappa); CHANDOLI, NEVASA (Chalcolithic); Mysore (Iron Age). Neolithic remains, 4000 years old, show that it was used as livestock feed in the Nile valley. It is believed to be indigenous in Asia and Africa, most likely brought under cultivation first in Sind and Gujarat.

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2.3.6 *Linum usitatissiumum*. See 2.6.2.

2.4 Fruits, Nuts, etc.

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2.4.1 *Borassus flabellifer* (toddy palm, palmyra palm). ARIKAMEDU (Indo-Roman). Native of tropical Africa, it is now widely cultivated in India, chiefly s. of the Ganga plains.

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2.4.2 *Buchanania lanzan* (*chalaunji*). INAMGAON (Chalcolithic). With no world record, it is indigenous to India, chiefly in the peninsula. The ripe fruit is eaten and kernels used in confectionary and seed-oil in medicine.

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2.4.3 *Citrullus* sp. Cf. *C. lanatus* (melon). Harappa. Widely cultivated in warm, arid, sandy tracts in c. and s. India and in coastal regions, as in the Mediterranean region and w. Asia.

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2.4.4 *Citrus* sp. (lemon). Harappa. Indigenous to India along the Himalayan foothills up to 1300 m.

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2.4.5 *Cocus nucifera* L. (coconut palm). Harappa; ARIKAMEDU (Indo-Roman). A coastal or near-coastal plant.

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2.4.6 *Emblica officinalis* (myrobalan, *amla*). NAVDATOLI (Chalcolithic). Cultivated and wild varieties occurring in mixed deciduous forests, it is sensitive to frost and drought.

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2.4.7 *Phoenix* sp. TEKKALAKOTA, UTNUR (Neolithic); Harappa; INAMGAON (Chalcolithic), all possibly of wild species with edible fruits. Real date palm, *P. dactylifera*, was introduced in Punjab in the 8th century.

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2.4.8 *Punicagranatum* (pomegranate, *anar*). Harappa. Wild and often under cultivation in semi-arid climates on poor soils.

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2.4.9 *Tamarindus indicus* (tamarind, *imli*). NEVASA (Chalcolithic). Origin in tropical Africa or s.-e. Asia.

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2.4.10 *Zizyphus jujuba* (*ber*). NAVDATOLI (Chalcolithic); BHOKARDAN, NEVASA, TEKKALAKOTA (early historical).

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2.4.11 *Zizyphus nummularia* (wild *ber*). INAMGAON (Chalcolithic).

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2.4.12 *Zizyphus vulgaris*. KODEKAL (Neolithic).

2.5 Legumes (Pulses)

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2.5.1 *Cajanus cajan* (pigeon pea, *arhar*, *tuver*). BHOKARDAN (early historical).

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2.5.2 *Cicer arietinum* (chick pea, *chana*). KALIBANGAN (Harappa); ATRANJIKHERA (OCW). BHATKULI, BHOKARDAN, TER (early historical). India is believed to be one of the centres of origin, Bronze Age records existing in Palestine.

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2.5.3 *Dolichos biflorus* (*kulti*). PAIYAMPALLI, TEKKALAKOTA (Neolithic, at the latter site also early historical); NOH, TER (early historical). These being the only world records, it is believed to be domesticated in s. Asia.

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2.5.4 *Dolichos lablab* var. *lignosus* (field bean). INAMGAON (Chalcolithic); BHOKARDAN, NEVASA, PRABHAS PATAN (early historical).

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2.5.5 *Lathyrus sativus* (*kesari*, *mattari*). CHIRAND (Neolithic); ATRANJIKHERA (OCW); INAMGAON, NAVDATOLI (Chalcolithic); KAUṆḌINYAPURA, TER (early historical). The world’s oldest record is from Kurzistan (6750 B.C.) and the Neolithic of Europe.

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2.5.6 *Lens culinaris* (lentil, *masur*). CHIRAND (Neolithic); INAMGAON, NAVDATOLI (Chalcolithic); NEVASA, TER (early historical). A w. Asian domesticate, the oldest world records come from Palestine (8000 B.C.), Kurzistan (7500 B.C.), Anatolia (7000 B.C.).

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2.5.7 *Phaseolus mungo* (black gram, *urd*). PAIYAMPALLI (late Neolithic); NAVDATOLI (Chalcolithic); BHOKARDAN, NEVASA, NOH (early historical).

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2.5.8 *Phaseolus radiatus* (*mung*). INAMGAON, NAVDATOLI (Chalcolithic).

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2.5.9 *Pisum arvense* (field pea, *matar*). CHIRAND (Neolithic); Chanhu-daro, Harappa (Harappa); NAVDATOLI (Chalcolithic); BHOKARDAN, KAUṆḌINYAPURA, KHOKHRAKOT, NEVASA, TER (early historical).

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2.5.10 *Pisum sativum* (garden pea, *matar*). INAMGAON (Chalcolithic).

2.6 Oilseeds

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2.6.1 *Brassica juncea* (mustard, *rai*). Chanhu-daro (Harappa). Oil and seeds were used in cooking, medicine and religious ceremonies, the last particularly by the Vedic people; oil is also used for lighting. The original home is believed to be anywhere between e. Europe and China.

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2.6.2 *Linum usitatissimum* (linseed, *alsi*), CHANDOLI, NAVDATOLI (Chalcolithic).

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2.6.3 *Ricinus communis* (*arind*). TER (early historical). The original home is believed to be Africa or India, in the latter used since Vedic times; it is also reported from African monuments.

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2.6.4 *Sesamum indicum* (*til*). Harappa.

2.7 Weeds and Forage Plants

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2.7.1 *Lathyrus sphaericus*. NAVDATOLI (Chalcolithic); KAUṆḌINYAPURA (early historical).

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2.7.2 *Lotus sphaericus*. BURZAHOM (Neolithic).

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2.7.3 *Medicago denticulata*. BURZAHOM (Neolithic).

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2.7.4 *Medicago falcata*. BURZAHOM (Neolithic).

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2.7.5 *Vicia sativa*. NAVDATOLI (Chalcolithic).

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2.7.6 *Vicia* sp. NAVDATOLI (Chalcolithic).

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2.7.7 *Vicia tetrasperma*. NAVDATOLI (Chalcolithic).

2.8 Miscellaneous

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2.8.1 *Chenopod-Amaranths*. SURKOTADA (Harappa). Tentatively identified with *Chenopodium*, *Atriplex*, *Amaranthus*.

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2.8.2 *Grasses*. SURKOTADA (Harappa). Tentatively identified with several genera.

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2.8.3 *Polygonum* sp. SURKOTADA (Harappa).

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2.8.4 *Sedges*. SURKOTADA (Harappa). Tentatively identified with *Carex*; *Eriophorum*.

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Allchin, F.R., 1968, in *Domestication & Exploitation of Plants & Animals*, Ucko, P.J., & Dimbleby, G.W., ed., London. Ghosh, S.S., 1961, in *Indian Forest*, 87, p. 295. Vishnu-Mittre, 1962, *Tech, Rep. on Arch. Remains*, Poona, pp. 11-52; 1968, J.C. Bose Endowment Lecture, *Trans. Bose Res. Inst.*, Calcutta 31, 3, pp. 87-106; 1973, in *Pollen and Spore Morphology of the Recent Plants, Proc. 3rd Int. Palynological Conf.*, Novosibirsk, pp. 24-32; 1974, in *Evolutionary Studies in World Crops*, Hutchinson, Joseph, ed., Cambridge, pp. 3-30; 1976, in *Origins of Agriculture*, Reed, Charles A., ed., The Hague; 1976, in *History of Agriculture*, Hutchinson, Joseph, ed., London, p. 36; 1978, in *Jour. Human Evolution*, 7, pp. 31-6. For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—VISHNU-MITTRE

2.9 Wood Remains

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One of the earliest specimens of wood recorded in the subcontinent is that of a coffin from the cemetery at Harappa. The wood used was *Cedrus deodara* (*deodar*) and *Dalbergia latifolia* (black *shisham*). Wood specimens identified from other sites are as follows: