An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c9.s18.2

v1.c9.s18.2

The period was marked by significant changes in the cultural style of the people—introduction of coinage [3.1] which facilitated trade, highways which promoted long-distance communication and commerce, extensive use of iron, structures of kiln-burnt brick, virtually forgotten after the Harappa culture [4.9], and above all the origin of cities, many of them strongly fortified [14.9], some at the time of their very establishment and others later on. The oft-repeated list of 16 *mahā-janapadas* (great kingdoms) mentioned in the early Buddhist literature comprises a few oligarchical (sometimes called republican) principalities as well in the *tarais*, the seat of one of which has not been identified; the capitals of the rest are identifiable and include such important city sites as CAMPĀ (the capital of Aṅga), VAIŚĀLĪ (the Licchavis), RAJGIR (Magadha), RAJGHAT⁴ (Kāśī), KAUŚĀMBĪ (Vatsa), ŚRĀVASTĪ (Kosala), AHICCHATRA (Pañcāla), HASTINĀPURA (Kuru), MATHURA (Śūrasena) and UJJAIN (Avanti), all of which, on excavation, have yielded early historical relics. Two of the enumerated *mahājanapadas* were in the n.-w. One of them, Gandhāra, had Taxila, very rich in archaeological remains, as one of its capitals. The epoch can therefore be regarded as representing the second civilization of India. It is absurd to believe that the rise of the cities was on the Persian model introduced by the Achaeminid occupation of the n.-w.; nor can a survival or revival of the Harappa urbanism [4.9] be held responsible for this.