An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c9.s18.t1.2

v1.c9.s18.t1.2

The start of the early historical period was the establishment of 16 *mahā-janapadas*, of which Vṛjji, Magadha and Aṅga, respectively with Vaiśālī, Rājagṛha (RAJGIR) and CAMPA as their capitals, all of them limitedly excavated. At all the three sites the black-and-red ware [11.6.4] appears to be the earliest pottery culture. No definite date can be ascribed to the rubble fortification walls girting the hills of RAJGIR, 40 km in perimeter [though its medieval origin (Patil, 1963, p. 435) is extremely unlikely], and no archaeological evidence is available to corroborate the grandeur of these cities as described in literature. Excavation at CAMPĀ in very limited areas, in the fortification and habitational areas, reveals the beginnings of a fortification wall of rammed earth dug out of the surrounding moat. The subsoil water level did not allow the excavation of the rampart down to its foundation; but by pumping and scouring sherds of the black-and-red ware of an early type were recovered without the NBPW. Thus it is very likely that the rampart was raised in the early 6th century B.C., or slightly earlier. The same is the story at VAIŚĀLĪ. It is tempting to suggest that in the early historical cities the NBPW and coinage were introduced almost simultaneously. The remains at BALIRAJGARH, Dt Mādhubani, also show a mud fortification in the early NBPW period. Towards the late NBPW phase we find at CAMPĀ, VAIŚĀLĪ and BALIRAJGARH in particular evidence of strengthening of the mud fortification walls by brick revetments and brick additions on the top. We do not know if the threat of the Bactrian Greek invasions or Khāravela’s campaigns in Magadha had anything to do with this spurt in strengthening the ramparts. Taking into account the ¹⁴C dates and their calibration it is safe to take back the beginning of the NBPW to 600 B.C., and everywhere in the region it appears with the late phase of the black-and-red ware. Silver and copper punch-marked coins [3.1] have been found in excavations at all the sites in the NBPW-bearing strata from the very beginning. On the basis of a comparative study of the weight of and the symbols on the coins and their distribution in the w., n.-w. and even s. it has been possible to assume the existence of an imperial Magadhan currency from the days of the Nandas supplanting the local punch-marked coinage. Cast copper coins [3.1] also appear quite close in time with the punch-marked ones. This makes it clear that trade and commerce had developed at the very beginning of the early historical period to the extent that metal currencies were an unavoidable necessity, there being no archaeological evidence of the existence of coinage prior to this period, notwithstanding the view of many scholars that coins, even gold ones, are referred to in the Vedic literature. Trade and commerce also presuppose roads and developed means of transport. While the Buddhist literature refers to roads and mentions national highways linking various cities of the w., n.-w., e. and s., and Kauṭilya refers to wide royal roads of different widths, excavations, probably because of being limited in area and sporadic in character, have failed to reveal any roads, large or small. The discovery of agate, steatite and carnelian beads (out of 103 carnelian beads found at SONPUR 33 belong to this period) from the excavated sites proves trade contacts with the far-off n.-w. regions, but there is no evidence of any object being imported from outside India, though the *Jātakas* do suggest contact with the w. world (cf. *Bāveru-jātaka*).