An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c9.s18.t1: 4.18.3 Middle Ganga region
An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c9.s18.t1
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4.18.3 Middle Ganga region
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Prior to the advent of the early historical period we have in the mid-Ganga valley (Bihar plains) the picture of a prevalent Chalcolithic culture, typified at CHIRAND and SONPUR [4.14.3] and characterized by the black-and-red ware [11.6.4], some copper objects, mud houses, microliths, bone arrowheads and a few terracottas. Towards the end of the Chalcolithic period we find the introduction of iron with a fine and late variety of the black-and-red ware at both the sites. Thus iron was known and used in the region before the introduction of the NBPW [11.16]. The use of iron as a metal has been hailed as marking a great technological revolution leading to the rise of urban centres, with the sophisticated *de luxe* NBPW monumental architecture and beginning of writing. While there is no question of the significance of the use of iron, the point appears to have been overrated. Even before the introduction of iron there were large and prosperous settlements in India and outside, developed scripts, art and architecture and brisk internal and external trade. The view that the opening up of the mid-Ganga valley by the Aryans was facilitated by the iron tools for the clearing of thick jungles is not tenable. While there is no evidence that the mid-Ganga plains were more thickly forested than the sub-Himalayan regions of Uttar Pradesh, which had settlements even before, we have clear evidence of a flourishing Chalcolithic culture throughout the area at sites like MANER, Dt Patna, CHECHAR, across the Ganga opposite Patna, and other sites, not to speak of CHIRAND and SONPUR. But iron tools and weapons must have helped in the marching ahead of the preceding Chalcolithic cultures into the rise and growth of larger kingdoms (*mahājanapadas*) and even empires. But the evidence of this transformation is lacking.
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The start of the early historical period was the establishment of 16 *mahā-janapadas*, of which Vṛjji, Magadha and Aṅga, respectively with Vaiśālī, Rājagṛha (RAJGIR) and CAMPA as their capitals, all of them limitedly excavated. At all the three sites the black-and-red ware [11.6.4] appears to be the earliest pottery culture. No definite date can be ascribed to the rubble fortification walls girting the hills of RAJGIR, 40 km in perimeter [though its medieval origin (Patil, 1963, p. 435) is extremely unlikely], and no archaeological evidence is available to corroborate the grandeur of these cities as described in literature. Excavation at CAMPĀ in very limited areas, in the fortification and habitational areas, reveals the beginnings of a fortification wall of rammed earth dug out of the surrounding moat. The subsoil water level did not allow the excavation of the rampart down to its foundation; but by pumping and scouring sherds of the black-and-red ware of an early type were recovered without the NBPW. Thus it is very likely that the rampart was raised in the early 6th century B.C., or slightly earlier. The same is the story at VAIŚĀLĪ. It is tempting to suggest that in the early historical cities the NBPW and coinage were introduced almost simultaneously. The remains at BALIRAJGARH, Dt Mādhubani, also show a mud fortification in the early NBPW period. Towards the late NBPW phase we find at CAMPĀ, VAIŚĀLĪ and BALIRAJGARH in particular evidence of strengthening of the mud fortification walls by brick revetments and brick additions on the top. We do not know if the threat of the Bactrian Greek invasions or Khāravela’s campaigns in Magadha had anything to do with this spurt in strengthening the ramparts. Taking into account the ¹⁴C dates and their calibration it is safe to take back the beginning of the NBPW to 600 B.C., and everywhere in the region it appears with the late phase of the black-and-red ware. Silver and copper punch-marked coins [3.1] have been found in excavations at all the sites in the NBPW-bearing strata from the very beginning. On the basis of a comparative study of the weight of and the symbols on the coins and their distribution in the w., n.-w. and even s. it has been possible to assume the existence of an imperial Magadhan currency from the days of the Nandas supplanting the local punch-marked coinage. Cast copper coins [3.1] also appear quite close in time with the punch-marked ones. This makes it clear that trade and commerce had developed at the very beginning of the early historical period to the extent that metal currencies were an unavoidable necessity, there being no archaeological evidence of the existence of coinage prior to this period, notwithstanding the view of many scholars that coins, even gold ones, are referred to in the Vedic literature. Trade and commerce also presuppose roads and developed means of transport. While the Buddhist literature refers to roads and mentions national highways linking various cities of the w., n.-w., e. and s., and Kauṭilya refers to wide royal roads of different widths, excavations, probably because of being limited in area and sporadic in character, have failed to reveal any roads, large or small. The discovery of agate, steatite and carnelian beads (out of 103 carnelian beads found at SONPUR 33 belong to this period) from the excavated sites proves trade contacts with the far-off n.-w. regions, but there is no evidence of any object being imported from outside India, though the *Jātakas* do suggest contact with the w. world (cf. *Bāveru-jātaka*).
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One notices for the first time after the end of the Harappa culture [4.9] the use of mud brick (SONPUR) and burnt brick (CAMPĀ) in the earliest exposed levels of the NBPW. However the *stūpa* built on Buddha’s relics at VAIŚĀLĪ [2.8] was a small one of mud. Whether the cities had special quarters or lanes for particular groups of artisans or not (as the *Jātakas* do suggest for Varanasi), one cannot miss the significance of the discovery of a large number (more than a dozen) of jeweller’s stone moulds from the early NBPW strata in one small trench at CAMPĀ, famous for its jewellery in early Buddhist and Jaina literature.
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Besides red ware, grey ware and the Black-slipped Ware [11.3], the *de luxe* NBPW was introduced. The shapes in these wares were the dish, bowl, lipped bowl, tumbler, *hāṇḍī*, jar, frying pan and drinking vessel. The NBPW shapes were mostly the bowl, lipped bowl, tumbler and dish. They must have been the prized prossession of the elite and the monk community; there are instances of broken NBPW vessels being repaired by copper wire. There is no doubt that the NBPW originated in the s. Bihar plains, where it is found in abundance at all sites, and CHIRAND, SONPUR, CAMPĀ and VIŚĀLĪ have yielded it different in hues; from CAMPĀ we have quite a few white-painted pieces.
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Carbonized grains of wheat, rice and other grains have been found at many sites. But the abundance of bone, ivory, copper and iron arrowheads and microliths suggests that hunting also must have been not only a pastime but a means of additional food supply. Together with stone and terracotta balls they could have been used as missiles as well in wars, which were very frequent in this formative historical period. Iron weapons should have been much in use, but it is important to note that only a few iron objects, much less identifiable ones other than nails, knives, arrowheads, one or two lance- and spear-heads and daggers have been found in the excavations. This is rather intriguing even making allowance for the possibility of corrosion and virtual disintegration of the metal in the soil. Is it possible that iron, like elephants, was costly, and its use was initially restricted for military use, which would explain the nature of iron objects from the excavations? Were iron tools of agriculture and smithy not yet in general use? Were large iron axes and saws not utilized in cutting trees in the sub-Himalayan region? All this lack of evidence may further suggest that iron technology probably did not play that dominant role in the economy as has been thought by some. From SONPUR in the long NBPW period (600-100 B.C.) we have broken and corroded pieces of a lance, a broken spear, a leaf-shaped arrowhead, fragments of a rusted chisel, broken knife blades, fragmentary pieces of an axe, a socketed arrowhead and a medium-sized ring. Copper objects are more numerous and varied, and there is hardly any copper tool or weapon which has completely yielded to its iron counterpart. Copper vessels like bowls, spoons, bells and ornamments such as ear rings, bangles, hair clips and antimony rods predominate, there being only a few copper nails and arrowheads.
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The Mauryan period (c. 322-185 B.C) introduced stone as part of architecture and for fashioning monolithic pillars with animal capitals, all with a shining polish. Excavations at KUMRAHAR, BULANDIBAGH and Kankarbagh have exposed extensive remains of massive timber palisades of the ancient city of PĀṬALIPUTRA, which is believed to have been founded a year before the death of Buddha, and which became the capital of the Magadhan empire shortly afterwards. The statement of Megasthenes that the wooden palisade had numerous gates and watch-towers surrounded by a deep moat does not necessarily make his contemporary Chandragupta Maurya the author of this complex. It could very well have been constructed at the time of the Nandas who built up the first all-India empire in the historical period with PĀṬALIPUTRA as the capital. The hall of KUMRAHAR with 80 stone pillars stands completely isolated in the entire complex and could hardly have been a part of the palace of Chandragupta. It could well have been constructed at the time of Aśoka with whom the use of stone as an architectural component can be definitely associated. Burnt-brick walls and floors have been traced at PĀṬALIPUTRA. At CAMPĀ a well-plastered brick drain belonging to the middle NBPW phase has been traced to some length.
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According to calibrated ¹⁴C dates the NBPW period may have ended by *c.* 100 B.C., thus including by and large the Śuṅga period. The NBPW deposits may be subdivided into three phases, early, middle and late (Śuṅga), with that ware as a very distinct cultural is determinant in all of them. The totality of this culture is fairly well-documented archaeologically. The middle phase, besides introducing stone masonry and substantial ramparts, also shows sophistication in sculptures, terracottas, jewellery and ceramics. A few broken pieces of polished shafts and animal capitals have been picked up in excavations in the localities of Patna besides the monolithic pillars of KUMRAHAR, fragments of polished stone discs engraved with scenes connected with the mother goddess [12.3.9] worship at Murtaziganj and the famous Didarganj *yakṣī*, not to speak of a number of stone beads. This entire gamut of stone objects of high quality bespeaks the existence of a highly skilled and distinct professional class of lapidary artists. The potter's art reached a new height. The red ware was for common use with the bowl, dish, jar, basin, *hāṇḍī*, frying pan, etc., predominating. In the black-slipped ware the bowl and dish outnumber the *hāṇḍī*. In grey ware too the dish and bowl are predominant. In the NBPW the dish and bowl are the chief types. In the late NBPW phase we have the sprinkler in the Red Polished Ware [11.23]. The find of this type at CAMPĀ in this phase is significant as the sprinkler is generally ascribed to the Kushan period. The character of the NBPW with its thin texture and hardness producing a metallic sound and in various colours (some sherds have two colours, as also paintings) speaks volumes for the quality of the ceramic art. The ware appears to have been rather specially designed for ritualistic purposes or as tableware for the nobility. Its wide distribution might have taken place more in the wake of Magadhan imperialism or the advance of Buddhism in the Mauryan period than to the spread of iron technology.
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The depiction of numerous types of ornaments—ear rings, necklaces, armlets, bangles, girdles and anklets—in sculptures and terracottas show the elegance of jeweller’s art, finding corroboration in the discovery of a large number of stone and ivory beads, terracotta ornaments and jeweller's moulds. Ornaments could have been of gold and silver. The poor were no less fond of ornaments but were satisfied with terracotta beads, ornaments for ear lobes etc.
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The art of making terracotta was also quite flourishing. Many of these could have been toys, but some were certainly of religious significance. The art in the period shows a steady evolution. Hand-moulded pieces with pinched nose, incised mouth and eyes, stumpy and incomplete arms and legs developed into beautifully moulded figurines of dancing girls and of graceful women with a variety of head-dresses and ear ornaments. Towards the end of the NBPW phase terracotta plaques, mostly of female figures or of *mithunas* became popular. A few plaques from CAMPĀ [as elsewhere from the upper and lower Ganga valley] have weapons arrayed on the top, the figurines thus probably representing a *śakti*. Winged female figurines from VAIŚĀLĪ and one from CAMPĀ having w. Asian head-dress suggest w. contacts. Animal figurines and toy ram-carts with wheels (one tortoise-shell cart from CAMPĀ) show the skill and artistry of the toy-maker. Conventionalized terracotta figurines of snake [17], abundantly found throughout this period, attest to an early *nāga* cult particularly prevalent in Bihar, as it is even today.
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Working on bone and ivory was also a sophisticated art. We have not only bone arrowheads, tanged, socketed and plain, but bone awls, ivory arrowheads, antimony rods, styli [20.5] spoons, dice and combs. A beautiful ivory female figurine with articulated limbs is a prize find from CAMPĀ.
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Dancing must have been a socio-religious pastime as revealed by many terracottas, and a large terracotta mask (*pratiśīrṣa*) from CHIRAND suggests the popularity of pantomimes or dramatic performances referred to by Greek writers and Kauṭilya. The discovery of many glass objects including beads and a beautiful crystal amulet or pendant in the form of female head from SONPUR suggests the knowledge of glass technology.
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Writing had certainly come into use, though no inscription definitely earlier than Aśoka has been found. Terracotta or clay sealings with short inscriptions have been recovered from SONPUR, KUMRAHAR, CAMPĀ and VAIŚĀLĪ. Wheeled transport must have been in general use. Kauṭilya speaks of large horse-drawn chariots, but we have only terracotta and bone toy wheels to substantiate the observation.
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The late NBPW phase shows a distinct deadline in pottery and sculpture. The NBPW is virtually nonexistent, grey ware also disappears and red ware is the only ware in the field; shapes in this ware do not show any notable features. Houses continue to be simple and small, made exclusively of burnt brick. Terracotta ringwells abound at all sites, their exact purpose remaining uncertain [14.15].
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The subsequent Kushan period and after, down to A D. 300, is remarkable for its massive well-built burntbrick structures at KUMRAHAR, VAIŚĀLĪ, CAMPĀ and particularly CHIRAND, where five structural phases have been traced and exposed. Most of the structures were probably part of monastic complexes. Contrasted with the previous Śuṅga and the subsequent Gupta structures, they exhibit a mature brick architecture. Terracotta art shows a declining trend through terracotta plaques continue. Except characteristic Kushan terracotta with bulging bellies, characteristic head-dress and rather grotesque or amusing faces, there is no extraordinary feature to be noted in the period. The ceramic art continues to decline. We have only the red ware; the shapes are mainly utilitarian without painting. The sprinkler, spouted vessel, high-necked *surāhī* and miniature pot are common. Beads of agate, amethyst, bone and ivory, carnelian, chalcedony, crystal and glass are found in greater quantities and attest to the continuation and further development of the concerned art and crafts and brisk trade.
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Ghosh, A., 1973, *City in Early Historical India*, Simla. Narain, Lala A., 1970, in *Jour. Bihar Res. Soc.*, 56, pp. 1-35 (for Chirand). Patil, D.R., 1963, *Antiquarian Remains in Bihar*, Patna. For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—B.P. SINHA