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The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature c10: Chapter VI. The Bhūmis

The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature c10

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Chapter VI. The Bhūmis

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A bodhisattva's entire career has been divided into several parts and stages. He rises and advances from one stage to another till he attains Enlightenment. These stages have been called bhūmis, and also vihāras. The word bhūmi means, "earth, place, region; (figuratively), ground, plane, stage, level; state of consciousness" (Pāli Dicy.). In a metaphorical sense, it is employed in a general way to denote "range", "state", "sphere", "station", "condition", "function", etc. We find such phrases as kāma-bhūmi, dānta-bhūmi, kumāra-bhūmi, nirvāṇa-bhūmi, citta-bhūmi, kṣānti-bhūmi, pṛthag-jana-bhūmi, tathatā-bhūmi, etc. In the Dhamma-saṅgaṇi, bhūmi is synonymous with magga (Way).¹ The Yoga-sūtras mention dṛḍha-bhūmi, prānta-bhūmi, sārva-bhauma, etc. (Yo. Sū., I, 14; ii, 27; ii, 31—pp. 18, 97, 104). Bhūmi has thus become a philosophical term, meaning "Stage" (of spiritual progress). Almost all the Buddhist treatises divide a bodhisattva's career into bhūmis, but the Bodhisattva-bhūmi also discusses thirteen vihāras (states, stations). The M. S. Al. gives a fanciful etymological explanation of bhūmi: "bhūyo bhūyo amitāsu" ("again and again in the unmeasured stages"); or, "bhūtānām amitānām" ("immeasurable number of creatures", to deliver them from fear).² Such conceits need not be taken seriously.

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There are at least four different schemes of division in the principal Sanskrit treatises. The Pr. Pā. Ṣata., the Mahā-vastu and the Da. Bhū. describe ten bhūmis in different ways, and the Bodhisattva-bhūmi speaks of seven bhūmis and thirteen vihāras. Candrakīrti's Madhyamakāvatāra is not available in Sanskrit and cannot therefore be utilised as one of the sources for this essay.

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The idea of establishing "Stages" on the spiritual pilgrim's long journey occurred early to the Buddhist thinkers. The Hinayānists developed the doctrine of the four Stages, which has already been referred to. Three vihāras are also mentioned in the Pāli canon: dibba-vihāra, ariya-vihāra and brahma-vihāra (Divine, Noble and Sublime).³ The *M. Vy.* mentions seven *bhūmis* of the *śrāvakas* (Section 50). The Mahāyānists did not attach much importance to the ten *samyojanas* (Fetters) and the four Stages of the Hīnayānists. They tried to devise a scheme of division based chiefly on the *pāramitās*.

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The *bhūmis* of the Mahāyāna are now supposed to be ten in number, but it is almost certain that they were only seven in the beginning. The vogue of the *Da. Bhū.* finally fixed the number of the *bhūmis*. But the *Bodhisattva-bhūmi* formally discusses seven *bhūmis* (fol. 136*b*), and the *Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra* speaks of "seven *bhūmis*" without specifying them (p. 28). The *Mahā-vastu* speaks of ten *bhūmis*, but it really describes only seven: it gives no relevant details about the fourth, ninth and tenth. It may therefore be inferred that it recognised only seven *bhūmis* at the outset. Even the *Da. Bhū.* shows clear indications of the original scheme of seven *bhūmis*. A *bodhisattva* is said to practise all the ten *pāramitās* in the seventh *bhūmi*, though only one *pāramitā* is allotted to each Stage. He is also supposed to practise only the seventh *pāramitā* in that *bhūmi*, and this contradiction is left unsolved. There is a great "Prediction" in the eighth *bhūmi*, as if a new epoch commenced at that point, for the *bodhisattva* obtains the first Prediction (*vyākaraṇa*) before starting on his career. It is also stated that a *bodhisattva* can pass away in *nirvāṇa* in the seventh *bhūmi*, if he so desires; but he follows the higher ideal of the Mahāyāna, which is especially realised in the eighth, ninth and tenth *bhūmis*. A *bodhisattva*, who has reached the eighth *bhūmi*, should be honoured like a perfect Buddha! All these details point to an original system of only seven *bhūmis*. This is also the number of the *bhūmis* in the *Yoga-sūtras* (*Yo. Sū.*, ii, 27, p. 97). The probable cause of the change from seven to ten has already been indicated above.

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It is a curious circumstance that these different schemes of the *bhūmis* have very little in common with one another. J. Rahder has tried to show that the system of the *Mahā-vastu* is closely related to that of the *Da. Bhū.* He says: "Après avoir mis en lumière l'étroite parenté entre le *Daça-bhumaka* . . . et le *Daça-bhūmika*, qui montre la préparation à la dernière incarnation dans le *Mahā-vastu*, etc."⁴ But the only points of contact between the systems of the *Mtu.* and the *Da. Bhū.* are that the sections dealing with the first *bhūmi* mention a few similar virtues, and that one of the *bhūmis* in both schemes is named durjayā (sudurjayā, in the Da. Bhū.). J. Rahder has pointed out that some passages of the Da. Bhū. resemble those of the Mtu. ; but the resemblance is so slight and vague that one cannot speak of “l’étroite parenté”. On the contrary, the Mtu. has no definite plan, while the Da. Bhū. allots a pāramitā to each bhūmi. The Mtu. declares that a bodhisattva may fall back into a lower bhūmi on account of certain faults, but the Da. Bhū. never speaks of the possibility of retrogression and always discusses virtues instead of sins. The Mtu. gives certain names to the bhūmis, but the Da. Bhū. has quite different names (except one). The account in the Mtu. is incoherent and confused : the Da. Bhū. shows a masterly architectonic faculty. The Pr. Pā. Çata. also fails to evolve an intelligible system : it does not even assign any names to the bhūmis and mentions the same virtues and sins again and again. The names of the bhūmis and the vihāras in the Bo. Bhū. are also different from those of the Da. Bhū., and there is a fundamental difference between the systems outlined in these two treatises. The author of the Da. Bhū. has constructed the framework of his system on the basis of the ten pāramitās, but the Bo. Bhū. divides a bodhisattva’s career up to a certain point according to the ancient triple formula of çila, samādhi (citta) and prajñā. The two writers have not the same point of view. It is true that the author of the Bo. Bhū. makes an unsuccessful attempt to identify some of his vihāras with the bhūmis of the Da. Bhū. and cites some passages from that treatise. But the principles underlying the two systems remain divergent in all essential respects. It may be inferred that the sections treating of the bhūmis in the Mahā-vastu and the Pr. Pā Çata. represent an early stage in the development of the idea, while the later systems of the Da. Bhū. and the Bo. Bhū. belong to two different schools or sects. The Bo. Bhū. has borrowed several ideas from the Da. Bhū. The doctrine of the bhūmis was not accepted in the same spirit by all the Mahāyānists. The M. S. Al. does not discuss the bhūmis in detail, and the B. C. Ava. does not mention them at all ! The Çikṣā speaks incidentally of the first bhūmi, but not of the others, though the author lived in the same period as Candrakīrti, who gives an elaborate account of the bhūmis in his Madhyamakavatāra. Perhaps the exponents of çūnyatā as conditioned Existence attached more importance to the bhūmis than the other Mādhyamikas, who interpreted it as absolute Non-existence.

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It is advisable to discuss the data of each treatise separately and also to accept the *Da. Bhū.* as the standard treatise on the subject. The systems of the other books may be summarised very briefly.

I. The Bhūmis in the Mahā-vastu

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Kātyāyana, a disciple of Gautama Buddha, explains to Ānanda that each *bhūmi* is "unmeasured", "infinite" (*aprameyā*), but that there are ten of them.

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The first *bhūmi* is called *Durārohā* (Difficult-to-enter). A *bodhisattva* cultivates charity, compassion, indefatigable energy, humility, study of all the branches of Learning (or all the Scriptures), heroism, renunciation of the world, and fortitude. He cannot rise to the second *bhūmi*, if he takes delight in life and its pleasures, or if he is indolent, worldly, timid, weak-willed, and unfriendly to others. He should also cultivate the idea of the impermanence of all things, and refuse to be entangled in worldly affairs. He produces the Thought of Enlightenment in his mind in this *bhūmi* and resolves to attain Enlightenment. Thus he gains much Merit and also accumulates the "Roots of Good or Merit". He is prepared to suffer in the *avīci* purgatory, if it should be necessary for success in his aim. A wonderful light spreads over the entire universe; the earth shakes and trembles; and the *devas* promise protection to such a *bodhisattva*, who is sure not to turn back (*avivartika*). He gives away wealth, limbs, wife and children; he speaks sweetly to cruel men, who may have threatened to beat, bind or kill him.

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In the second *bhūmi* (*Baddhamānā*, "Fastening"), a *bodhisattva* cultivates Aversion to all forms of existence in the three realms (*bhaveṣu arati*). He is full of thoughts of beneficence, love and gentleness. He harbours his great, wonderful and profound purpose with a keen mind. He has uncommon nobility and elevation of spirit. He is noted for his independence and overcomes all obstacles. He is resolute, pure, sincere and steadfast, as his character is such that he is free from sensuous desire and love of pleasure, longs for Enlightenment, and thinks in terms of Infinity. But he cannot rise to the third *bhūmi* and abide in it, if he is avid of gain, honour and fame, or if he is dishonest and cunning. He should also beware of showing disrespect to his teachers and the Triple Jewel, and of using garlands, ornaments and unguents. He should not be satisfied with a little progress, and he should never laud himself or contemn others.

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The third *bhūmi* is called *Puṣpa-maṇḍitā* (Adorned-with-flowers). In this *bhūmi*, a *bodhisattva* especially cultivates *tyāga* (charity, liberality). He confers happiness on all creatures without any selfish motive. He also loves Learning so much that he is prepared to make the greatest sacrifices only to hear a single instructive verse or stanza. But he cannot rise to the fourth *bhūmi* and abide in it, if he is addicted to gambling and other similar improper pursuits, or if he is too fond of seclusion and solitude. He should also beware of the habit of obtaining money by political influence, and of complicity in crimes of any kind. He should acquire much knowledge and constantly praise the Buddhas, otherwise he will fall back from the fourth *bhūmi* into the third.

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The fourth *bhūmi* is called *Rucirā* (Beautiful, Attractive). In this *bhūmi*, a *bodhisattva* should beware of immoral practices and the exercise of the wonder-working Powers for illegitimate objects. He should be conscientious and develop a sense of noble shame. He should not incite others to wicked deeds. If he does not avoid such faults, he cannot rise to the fifth *bhūmi*.

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(Note: The *Mahā-vastu* gives the details about the eighth *bhūmi* in the section on the fourth *bhūmi*! These details will be discussed in connection with the eighth *bhūmi*.)

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The fifth *bhūmi* is called *Citta-vistāra* (Expansion of the Heart). A *bodhisattva* now realises that all Existence is consumed with the fire of lust, hatred and delusion, and that it is devoid of protection and happiness. He worships and serves many Buddhas. He cannot rise to the sixth *bhūmi* and abide in it, if he mixes with the followers of other sects, like the *Yogācāras*. He should also not be afraid of ascetic practices, and should constantly cultivate calm and insight.

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The sixth *bhūmi* is called *Rūpavatī* (“Beautiful, Lovely”). A *bodhisattva* now feels and knows that this “whirlpool” of the world is very terrible and yields little joy and satisfaction. He cannot rise to the seventh *bhūmi* and abide in it, if he desires to attain the trance of the Cessation-of-perception-and-feeling, or listens complacently to his own praises as a great man and a self-restrained saint.

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The seventh *bhūmi* is called *Durjayā* (“Difficult to conquer”). A *bodhisattva* practises self-control in order to do good to many creatures. He especially cultivates compassion, refrains from killing living beings, and also teaches others to observe this precept. He also practises forbearance in all his actions and forgives his enemies. He masters all the arts, sciences, languages and scripts. He learns everything about gold, silver, gems and precious stones, and acquires all knowledge that may be useful to mankind.

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The eighth *bhūmi* is called *Janma-nideśa* (Ascertainment of Birth). A *bodhisattva* is now perfectly pure and may be described as *avaivartaka* (not capable of turning back). He should be honoured in the same way as a Buddha. His chief characteristic is great Love and Compassion. He cannot commit any of the five heinous sins, or do evil of any kind. He does not frustrate the good deeds of others. He follows the ten meritorious Ways of Action. He is gentle and grateful : he does not pluck the leaves of the tree, under which he sits or sleeps. He does not injure others by charms and spells. He is calm and serene : he is not elated in prosperity or dejected in adversity. He cannot be reborn in a state of woe or in a common purgatory.

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The ninth and tenth *bhūmis* are named *Yauvarāja* (Installation as Crown-Prince) and *Abhiṣeka* (Coronation) respectively. But no details are given.

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It is clear that the account of the *bhūmis* in the *Mahā-vastu* is very confused and incoherent. It is also replete with digressions and repetitions.

II. The Bhūmis in the Pr. Pā ṇata

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This treatise mentions ten *bhūmis*, to which it does not assign any names. In the first *bhūmi*, a *bodhisattva* acquires Merit, cultivates the thought of Omniscience, and thus makes the general “Preparation of Purpose”. He maintains the same mental attitude toward all beings by practising the four “infinite” Meditations of friendliness, compassion, sympathetic joy and equanimity. He gives freely in charity, and cherishes and serves his good friends. He studies the Doctrine and adheres to the Mahāyāna. He renounces his home and becomes a monk. He continually thinks of the Buddhas. He preaches the faith to the people, exhorts them to live the higher spiritual life, and instructs them in the different branches of the Scriptures. He is free from pride and arrogance, so that he may never be born in a family of low and humble origin.

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He speaks the truth, and his actions are in harmony with his words.

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In the second *bhūmi*, a *bodhisattva* purifies his conduct by paying no heed to the doctrines of the Hīnayāna and other systems that are prejudicial to his progress towards Enlightenment. He cultivates the virtues of gratitude, forbearance and harmlessness. He experiences great joy by maturing the living beings in the three Ways and working for their rescue and salvation in a spirit of devotion. He feels such deep compassion for all creatures that he resolves to suffer in the purgatories for their sake. He has faith in his teachers, and reveres and serves them. He devotes himself exclusively and entirely to the practice of the Perfections in order to mature and ripen all beings.

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In the third *bhūmi*, a *bodhisattva* acquires a thorough knowledge of the teachings of the Buddhas in all the worlds and universes. He preaches to the people in such an unselfish spirit that he does not even desire Enlightenment as his recompense for the work. He applies and dedicates all his “Roots of Merit” for the purification of the minds of others. He never feels weary or depressed on account of his heavy burden. He feels shame and disgust at the thought of countenancing the tenets of the Hīnayānists.

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In the fourth *bhūmi*, he lives in the forest. He has few desires and does not long even for *bodhi*. He is contented, and accepts the profound truths regarding Liberation like a true ascetic. He practises all the modes of Discipline and does not harbour any sensual thoughts. He renounces all things and cultivates the idea of passivity. He sacrifices everything, internal and external, and is indifferent to all objects.

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In the fifth *bhūmi*, a *bodhisattva* avoids intercourse with householders and travels from one Buddha-field to another. He does not wish to enjoy the company of the nuns even for a moment. He works for the good of all without distinction. He shuns the society of the Hīnayānists and does not frequent their schools. He does not exalt himself or belittle others. He is never malicious and quarrelsome. He avoids the ten demeritorious Ways of Action, as they cause unhappy rebirths and hinder the attainment of Enlightenment. He eschews pride, arrogance, perverted views, sense-desire, hatred, delusion and doubt.

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In the seventh *bhūmi*, a *bodhisattva* abandons the wrong belief in the existence of a permanent substantial *ātman*. He understands that nothing is produced or destroyed, and that nothing is eternal or evanescent. He gets rid of the idea of Cause. He is not attached to *nāma-rūpa* (mind-and-body), to the Aggregates (*skandha*), to all the elements and factors of Existence (*dhātu*), to the Spheres of Sense, and to anything in the triple Universe. He does not indulge in speculation with regard to the Buddha, the Doctrine and the Confraternity. He is not dejected at the thought that all things are empty and conditioned (*śūnya*). He realises the truths of Emptiness, Signlessness and Desirelessness, as he does not entertain the idea of the triple Universe. He fulfils the ten ethical precepts and cultivates compassion and friendliness. He comprehends the equality (sameness) of all things and principles. He destroys all his sins and passions, controls his mind, acquires calm and insight, and obtains "the eye of the Buddha" (perfect Knowledge).

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In the eighth *bhūmi*, a *bodhisattva* can read the thoughts of all creatures, acquires the Super-knowledges, sees all the Buddha-fields, serves the Buddhas by serving all beings, and obtains true insight into the nature of the *dharma-kāya* (cosmic spiritual Body). He acquires the sovereignty of the Universe and then renounces it. He knows the higher and lower powers of all, purifies the Buddha-fields, and performs all actions without being attached to anything.

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In the ninth *bhūmi*, he attains success in his infinite Resolve and Aspiration. He acquires the two useful powers of *nirukti* (exegesis) and *pratibhāna* (readiness in speech). He understands the speech of the *devas*, *nāgas*, *yakṣas*, *asuras* and other beings. His birth is apparitional, and he is not born through the physical union of a man and a woman. He is always born in a noble family of the warrior-caste or the priestly caste. He belongs to the *gotra* (family) of all the former *bodhisattvas*. He illumines innumerable worlds immediately after his birth and causes them to be shaken in six ways. He renounces his home and becomes a recluse. When he sits under the tree of Enlightenment, the tree appears to be made of gold and precious stones. He attains the Perfection of all the virtues and qualities.

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In the tenth *bhūmi*, a *bodhisattva* becomes a Buddha and acquires all the attributes of a perfect Buddha.

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It is clear that there is no plan or system in this account of the ten *bhūmis*. Only six *pāramitās* are spoken of, and the same items are mentioned several times.

III. The Bhūmis and Vihāras of the Bodhisattva-bhūmi

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This important treatise gives a complicated and overlapping system of seven *bhūmis*, which include thirteen *vihāras*. The subject is really discussed in detail in connection with the *vihāras*, to which a long chapter is devoted. But the older scheme of classification in seven *bhūmis* is mentioned in the next chapter, and the relation of the *bhūmis* to the *vihāras* is indicated. The seven *bhūmis* and the thirteen *vihāras* are as follows (*Bo. Bhū.*, 136b, 4-7):—

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i. *Gotra-bhūmi*, which is identical with the *gotra-vihāra*.

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ii. *Adhimukti-caryā-bhūmi*, which is the same as the *adhimukti-caryā-vihāra*.

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iii. *Cuddh-āçaya-bhūmi* (the Stage of Pure Intention or Thought), which is also called the *pramudita-vihāra*.

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iv. *Caryā-pratipatti-bhūmi* (the Stage of the practice or performance of the Discipline). This stage is very important, as it includes the following six *vihāras*: *Adhiçīla-vihāra*; *Adhicitta-vihāra*; *Adhiprajñā-vihāra* No. 1; *Adhiprajñā-vihāra* No. 2; *Adhiprajñā-vihāra* No. 3; *Sābhoga-nirnimitta-vihāra*.

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v. *Niyatā-bhūmi* (the Stage of Certainty and Regulation). This *bhūmi* is identical with the *anābhoga-nirnimitta-vihāra*.

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vi. *Niyata-caryā-bhūmi* (the Stage of certain regulated Practice). This *bhūmi* is the same as the *pratisamvid-vihāra*.

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vii. *Niṣṭhāgamana-bhūmi* (Attainment of the End of Perfection). This *bhūmi* includes two *vihāras*: the *parama-vihāra* and the *tathāgata-vihāra*.

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The subjects *gotra* and *adhimukti* have already been discussed above. The remaining eleven *vihāras* may be described briefly.

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(1) *Pramudita-vihāra* (The Station of Joy: *Bo. Bhū.*, fol. 123a, 3 ff.).

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It is a curious coincidence that the first *bhūmi* in the scheme of the *Da. Bhū.* has the same designation (*pramuditā*). In this Station, a *bodhisattva* is distinguished for purity of thought. He takes the great Vow or Resolve, which is also called the "Thought of Enlightenment". This Resolve is incomparable and inviolable. It aims at saving all beings from pain and raises a *bodhisattva* above the *śrāvakas* and the *pratyekabuddhas*. It arises in a *bodhisattva's* mind on account of the accumulation of Merit in a previous life and the acquisition of the proper Equipment for Enlightenment. Such a *bodhisattva* may rightly be called "Buddha's son of the breast". He is full of joy in mind and body, because he is free from anger, malice and excitement, and all fears and dangers have disappeared for him. He understands that there is no permanent Ego and has therefore no notion of Self. He is free from self-love and never thinks of injuring others. He is not proud or covetous. He puts forth great energy, as he is blessed with faith and a pure, unsullied Will. He declares his ten great Aspirations. By virtue of these Aspirations, he subsequently develops many others. He sees many Buddhas, about whom he has read in the Scriptures, or of whom he has thought with faith and devotion. On account of his earnest wish, he is born in the worlds, where a Buddha has made his appearance. He worships and serves those Buddhas and learns the Doctrine from them. He practises virtue and "applies" all his Merit to the attainment of Enlightenment. He "matures" the beings by means of the four *saṅgraha-vastus*, and his "Roots of Merit" are purified. He teaches all creatures in a liberal spirit and withholds nothing from them. He is very strenuous, becomes a homeless monk and acquires many *samādhis* (modes of Concentration). He can see the Buddhas in many Buddha-fields with his supernal organ of sight. He can live for hundreds of *kalpas* (æons) and knows the past and the future. He can create his own phantom-bodies and show them to other *bodhisattvas* who need instruction; and he can perform many other miracles.

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(2) *Adhiśīla-vihāra*. This *vihāra* is said to correspond to the second *bhūmi* of the *Da. Bhū.* A *bodhisattva* purifies his thoughts by serving his teachers and living peacefully and happily with his fellow-*bodhisattvas*. He is master of his mind and conquers all the great and small sins and passions. He does not value the things of the world, thinks of the advantages of Liberation, and continually cultivates the *bodhipakṣya-dharmas*. He is indifferent to worldly gain and honour. He rejects the Hinayāna and accepts the Mahāyāna. He is virtuous by nature, and does not commit the slightest sin. He follows the ten meritorious Ways of Action, knows the results of good and evil deeds in future rebirths, and exhorts others to the pursuit of righteousness on account of his great compassion for them.

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(3) *Adhicitta-vihāra*. This *vihāra* is said to correspond to the third *bhūmi* of the *Da. Bhū.* A *bodhisattva* now knows that his thoughts are permanently pure and cannot be corrupted by attachment to worldly and sinful objects. He cultivates the virtue and wisdom that form the antidote to the *āsravas* (Intoxicants). He cannot be overcome by the hosts of *Māra*. He feels no pain or difficulty in practising severe austerities. He is devoted to the *Mahāyāna* and takes delight in doing good to all. He realises the dangers and disadvantages of all material things and phenomena, and turns his mind away from them. He longs for the knowledge of the Buddhas, as it would confer wonderful benefits on him. He pities the afflicted creatures and becomes still more strenuous and vigilant. He understands that pure and perfect Knowledge and Wisdom are the only remedies for the evils, from which all living beings suffer. He diligently studies the Scriptures and tries to acquire the *dhyānas*, *samādhis* and *samāpattis* (Attainments). He is ready to sacrifice his wealth, serve his teachers, and endure pain and hardship in order to receive religious instruction, which he values more highly than all the treasures of the entire universe. He is so eager in the pursuit of such knowledge that he would willingly throw himself into the fire in order to learn a single new sentence or maxim relating to the Doctrine and perfect Enlightenment. He is prepared even to suffer in the purgatories, if need be. He acts in accordance with the teaching, and attains the four *dhyānas*, the four non-material *samāpattis*, the four "infinite" Meditations, and the five *abhijñās* (Super-knowledges). He is then reborn at will, wherever he thinks that the interests of the living beings can best be served. He is freed from the bonds of sensuous desire, love of existence, hatred and delusion.

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(4) *Adhiprajñā-vihāra* No. 1. This *vihāra* is said to correspond to the fourth *bhūmi* of the *Da. Bhū.* A *bodhisattva* now practises the thirty-seven *bodhipakṣya-dharmas*. He gets rid of the last traces of the wrong belief in the *ātman*. He does all actions that have been praised by the Buddha, and avoids all actions that the Buddha has condemned. He is more compassionate, active, grateful, virtuous, energetic and steadfast than ever before. He is more than a match for all rival teachers belonging to other sects.

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(5) *Adhiprajñā-vihāra* No. 2. This *vihāra* is said to correspond to the fifth *bhūmi* of the *Da. Bhū.* A *bodhisattva* makes further progress in knowledge and comprehends the four Noble Truths in all their aspects. He determines to obtain the full Equipment of Merit and Knowledge in order to liberate all beings. He thinks of nothing else but this duty, and cultivates mindfulness, thoughtfulness, proper deportment and other virtues. He acquires a thorough knowledge of the arts, sciences and technical crafts. He helps the people by bestowing wealth on the poor, healing the sick, and supplying all with appropriate objects of enjoyment. He protects them against such dangerous persons as kings, thieves and robbers. He exhorts them to do what is proper and shun what is improper, to take what is beneficial and reject what is detrimental to them. He teaches them how to live together in love and peace in this life, and attain happiness hereafter.

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(6) *Adhiprajñā-vihāra* No. 3. This *vihāra* is said to correspond to the sixth *bhūmi* of the *Da. Bhū.* A *bodhisattva* now comprehends the formula of the *pratītya-samutpāda* and the three “Entrances to Liberation”, viz. *śūnyatā*, *ānimitta* and *apraṇihita*. He gets rid of the notions of Doer, Knower, Existence and Non-existence. He realises that the twelve causes of Existence and Pain depend on impure sin and passion (*kleśa*). He attains absolute Knowledge and the Perfection of Wisdom, and can therefore perform all ordinary worldly actions without being attached to anything. He cultivates the *kṣānti* that is called *ānulomikī*. He experiences thousands of *samādhis*. He is skilful in the choice of the means for converting and helping others.

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(7) *Sābhoga-nirnimitta-vihāra* (The Station of the Unconditioned, accompanied with Mental Effort or Thought).5 This *vihāra* is supposed to correspond to the seventh *bhūmi* of the *Da. Bhū.* A *bodhisattva* now rises above mere Merit and begins to acquire the Buddha-knowledge in body, speech and mind. He understands the immense scope of Buddhahood and continually tries to be faultless in his deportment, conduct and thoughts. He fulfils the ten *pāramitās* and all the seven Factors of Enlightenment (*bodhy-aṅgāni*). He is completely free from all the sins and passions like sensuous desire, hatred, etc. ; or it may be said that he transcends them altogether. He improves and perfects his knowledge of the arts and sciences. He is superior to all beings except the Buddhas and the more advanced *bodhisattvas*. He experiences a million *samādhis*. His words, deeds and thoughts are now independent of *nimitta* (cause and motive). He attains the *summum bonum*, but does not disappear in *nirvāṇa*.

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(8) *Anābhoga-nirnimitta-vihāra* (The Station of the Unconditioned without Mental Effort or Thought). This *vihāra* is said to correspond to the eighth *bhūmi* of the *Da. Bhū.* In this *vihāra*, a *bodhisattva*’s actions are perfectly pure, whereas they were not so in the preceding Stations. He obtains infallible knowledge of the past, present and future. He comprehends that all things are really undefinable and indescribable. There can be no origination and no causation. Thus he acquires the *kṣānti* that is called *anutpattika-dharma-kṣānti*. He is now exhorted by the Buddhas and obtains the ten Powers (*vaṣitā*). He can enjoy the *dhyānas* that he wishes to experience. He can get material objects like food and drink merely by thinking of them. All his desires are automatically fulfilled. He can know everything that he wants to know. He is never deprived of communion with the Buddhas.

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(9) *Pratisamvid-vihāra*. This *vihāra* is said to correspond to the ninth *bhūmi* of the *Da. Bhū.* In this *vihāra*, a *bodhisattva* understands the problem of moral corruption and purification in all its aspects. He becomes a great and successful preacher and teacher. He is protected by the magic spells of the *devas* and acquires the four *pratisamvids*.

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(10) *Parama-vihāra* (the highest or supreme Station). This *vihāra* is said to correspond to the tenth *bhūmi* of the *Da. Bhū.* A *bodhisattva* now attains the highest *samādhis* and incomparable, innumerable Powers. He destroys the sins and errors of many beings by spiritual instruction. He is like a cloud that sends down rain on the earth; he lays the dust of passion and promotes the growth of meritorious deeds by his teaching. He is absolutely free from all sins and all hindrances to Knowledge.

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(11) *Tathāgata-vihāra* (the Station of the Buddhas). In this *vihāra*, a *bodhisattva* reaches his goal and acquires Omniscience. He attains final and absolute Enlightenment.

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This scheme of thirteen *vihāras* has really very little in common with the ten *bhūmis* of the *Da. Bhū.*, though the author of the *Bo. Bhū.* takes great pains to point out that ten of the *vihāras* correspond to the ten *bhūmis* of the *Da. Bhū.* But they do not so correspond. The *Da. Bhū.* allots one *pāramitā* to each *bhūmi*: that is the essential feature of its system. But the author of the *Bo. Bhū.* mentions the word *pāramitā* only twice in the chapter on the *vihāras* (fol. 129b, 5.1 and 130b, 2.1). He does not attach particular importance to the *dāna-pāramitā* in the *pramudita-vihāra*, which is said to correspond to the first *bhūmi* of the *Da. Bhū.* He omits the Perfection of *kṣānti* altogether. He does not mention the seventh, eighth and ninth *pāramitās* in connection with the *vihāras* that are supposed to correspond to the respective *bhūmis* of the *Da. Bhū.* He goes further and adds the last *vihāra* that does not correspond to any *bhūmi* of the *Da. Bhū.* Here the pretence is dropped. There are other discrepancies too. The *Da. Bhū.* allots one of the *saṅgraha-vastus* to each of the first four *bhūmis*, but the *Bo. Bhū.* puts all of them in the *pramudita-vihāra* (fol. 125a, 1.2-3). This system of the *vihāras* is really based on the idea of what is called *nirnimitta-bhāvanā*, and not on the ten *pāramitās*. This is the fundamental difference between the schemes of the *Da. Bhū.* and the *Bo. Bhū.* The *Bo. Bhū.* lays stress on the gradual realisation of the principle of *nirnimitta-bhāvanā* (cultivation of the idea of the Unconditioned, the Uncaused: fol. 121b, 5.2 ff.). This *bhāvanā* commences in the *adhimukti-caryā-vihāra* and reaches complete fruition in the last *vihāra*.

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In conclusion, the *Bo. Bhū.* declares that all the *vihāras* and *bhūmis* are purified by faith, compassion, friendliness, learning, fortitude, indefatigable zeal and the worship of the Buddhas.

IV. The Bhūmis of the Daça-bhūmika-sūtra

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The most systematic treatment of the subject of the *bhūmis* is found in the *Daça-bhūmika-sūtra*. The author takes us through a mighty maze, but it is not without a plan. He manages to place almost all the important concepts and categories of Buddhist philosophy in his scheme of ten *bhūmis*. Thus, for example, he puts the four *saṅgraha-vastus* in the first four *bhūmis*, the four Noble Truths in the fifth *bhūmi*, the formula of Dependent Origination in the sixth *bhūmi*, and so on. But his system exhibits a certain unity of plan on account of the parallelism between the ten *pāramitās* and the ten *bhūmis*. A *bodhisattva* especially cultivates one of the *pāramitās* in each *bhūmi*. Other details are subsidiary. The *Da. Bhū.* thus offers a methodical and coherent scheme, which is now accepted as the standard system of division and classification for a *bodhisattva's* career. The *Da. Bhū.* does not speak of the *gotra-bhūmi* and the *adhimukti-caryā-bhūmi*, and differs in this respect from the *Bo. Bhū.* The latter treatise has borrowed from the *Da. Bhū.* the “progressive simile” of gold, which relieves the dreary dullness of the *Da. Bhū.* A *bodhisattva* is compared in each *bhūmi* to gold, which is purified more and more by being heated in the goldsmith’s fire till it is at last made into an ornament to be worn on the neck of a powerful monarch.⁶ The *bodhisattva’s* splendour is likened to the light of the moon and the sun. In each *bhūmi*, a *bodhisattva’s* glory and power (*prabhāva*) increase a hundredfold, a thousandfold, a millionfold, and so on. His rebirths exhibit a similar progressive tendency.⁷ In the first *bhūmi*, he is as a rule born as the King of India (*Jambudvīpa*, Rose-apple Island). In the second *bhūmi*, he is born as a universal Monarch, ruler of the four *dvīpas* (islands) and owner of the seven “jewels.” In the third *bhūmi*, he is born in a heaven as Indra, ruler of the thirty-three *devas*. In the fourth *bhūmi*, he is Suyāma, King of another class of *devas*. Then he is successively born in the higher heavens as the ruler of the *devas* of the Tuṣita heaven, of the *nirmāṇa-rati devas*, and of the *devas* called *paranirmita-vaça-vartins*. Finally, he is born as *Mahābrahmā*, ruler of a thousand worlds and of two thousand worlds, and ends by being born as *Maheçvara* (Çiva). This last stage betrays the influence of the *Çaiva* sect, which is also apparent in the list of the heavens in the *M. Vy.* It is also to be noted that a *bodhisattva* is not said to be born in the four non-material heavens (*ārūpya-dhātu*). In fact, the heavens are many, and the *bhūmis* are only ten. So the author of the *Da. Bhū.* mentions only two heavens of the Brahma-loka, which, however, belong more to the Pāli than to the Sanskrit tradition (cf. *Majjhima* iii, 101 ff.). He omits the other heavens of the *rūpa-dhātu*, and ends his list with *Maheçvara*, who seems to have ousted *Brahmā* from the highest position.

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Such is the general plan of the *Da. Bhū.* A few details about each *bhūmi* may be added.

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(1) *First Bhūmi*, called *Pramuditā* (Joyful). The form *muditā* is also found (*Lka.*, p. 375). The *M.S. Al.* explains that the *bhūmi* is so called because a *bodhisattva* feels keen delight (*moda*), when he knows that he will soon attain *bodhi* and promote the good of all beings (p. 181). According to the *Da. Bhū.*, a *bodhisattva* enters this first Stage immediately after the production of the “Thought of Enlightenment”. He rejoices exceedingly, as he remembers the teaching of the Buddha and thinks of the discipline of the *bodhisattvas*. He realises that he has now risen above the life of the foolish common people and is also delivered from the fear of unhappy rebirths. He feels that he is the refuge of all creatures. He is not troubled by the five fears that embitter the lives of other men, viz. the fear of loss of livelihood, of obloquy, of death, of rebirth in a state of woe, and of diffidence in assemblies. He does not think of Self; he does not care for honour; he knows that he will always remain in communion with the Buddhas and the *bodhisattvas* after his death; and he feels that he is superior to others in all assemblies. He is well and firmly established in this *bhūmi* through faith, devotion, aspiration, preparation, mercy, compassion, friendliness, fortitude, conscientiousness, noble shame, gentle forbearance, reverence for Buddha's teaching, and perseverance in accumulating the "Roots of Merit". He cherishes his good friends, takes delight in righteous activity, seeks for learning and knowledge with unabated zeal, ponders well on the Doctrine, and longs for the stage of Enlightenment and the practice of the Perfections. He cultivates honesty, sincerity and truthfulness, and develops the different Factors of Enlightenment. He is firm like a rock in his aspiration for Omniscience. He takes the ten great Vows. He wishes that his Vows may endure and extend as far as the universe and all space and Buddha-knowledge itself. He has deep faith in the Buddhas and all their attributes. He knows that the principles of Buddhahood are profound, absolute, transcendental and ineffable. He sees that the worldly people are the slaves of sins, passions and errors, and therefore endure the pain that is inseparable from life. He pities them and resolves to save and liberate them. He then begins to practise charity and self-sacrifice on an immense scale, as he himself has no desire for anything. He gives away wealth, wife and children, and his own limbs and life. He acquires learning, experience and fortitude. He worships the Buddhas and has the privilege of seeing and serving millions and billions of them. He then "applies" and dedicates all his "Roots of Merit" for Enlightenment. He practises the *Perfection of Giving* (*dāna-pāramitā*) with zeal and also cultivates the other Perfections according to his capacity. He pays special attention to the first *saṅgraha-vastu* (Charity). As a skilful caravan-leader obtains full information about the difficulties and perils of the road before starting on a journey, even so a wise *bodhisattva* now learns everything about the discipline and duties of his long career from the Buddha, the *bodhisattvas* and his good friends. He becomes a monk, experiences hundreds of samādhis, lives for a hundred aeons, assumes a hundred forms, and performs innumerable miracles.

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(2) Second Bhūmi, called Vimalā (“Pure”, “Free from impurity,” “Immaculate”). The M. S. Al. explains that this bhūmi is so called because a bodhisattva is free from the “dirt” of unrighteous conduct and of the Hinayāna (p. 182). Candrakīrti says: “Possédant les pures qualités de la plénitude de la moralité le bodhisattva, même en rêve, abandonne la souillure de l’immoralité” (Le Muséon, 1907, p. 280). According to the Da. Bhū., a bodhisattva is now straightforward, tender-hearted, active, self-controlled, calm, beneficent, incorruptible, noble, magnanimous, and free from desire. He is distinguished for such traits of character. He also follows the ten meritorious “Ways of Action”, as he especially cultivates the śīla-pāramitā in this bhūmi without neglecting the other pāramitās. He knows that the violation of the ten moral Precepts leads to rebirth in the three states of woe and to severe penalties in the case of rebirth as a human being. He exhorts others to observe the ten Precepts, and again resolves to be their friend, guide, protector, teacher and saviour, as they are so deeply enmeshed and engulfed in pain, sorrow, sin and ignorance. He pays special attention to the second saṅgraha-vastu (Pleasant Speech) in this bhūmi.

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(3) Third Bhūmi, called Prabhākarī (“Light-giving,” “Luminous,” “Illuminating,” “la Terre clarifiante”). W. McGovern translates, “Brightness of Intellect,” but the name does not seem to refer to “intellect”.8 The M. S. Al. explains that this bhūmi is so called, because a bodhisattva diffuses the great light of the Doctrine among the living beings (p. 182). But Candrakīrti says: “On nomme cette terre la Lumineuse, parce que, en ce moment, apparaît la lumière du feu, du savoir qui consume entièrement le combustible appelé ‘connaissable’” (Madhyamakāvatāra: Le Muséon, 1907, p. 294). A bodhisattva’s thoughts are now pure, constant, unworldly, dispassionate, firm, resolute, ardent, ambitious, noble and magnanimous. He realises that all material compounds are transient, impermanent and momentary. He understands that his body, exposed to grief and pain, is burning with the fire of passion, hatred and error. He therefore cultivates an attitude of still greater aversion and indifference to all things of the world. He longs all the more for Buddha-knowledge, which is incomparable and confers security, happiness and salvation on all. He again thinks of the misery, sins and folly of the living beings, and again resolves to help, teach and liberate them. He devotes himself night and day to the study of the Scriptures and the teachings of the Buddha in order to gain perfect Knowledge and Wisdom. He practises regular self-examination and meditation. He experiences and acquires the four dhyānas, the four non-material samāpattis, the four brahma-vihāras and the five abhijñās. He gets rid of the āsravas of sensuous Desire, love of existence, ignorance, and metayphysical speculation. He especially cultivates the Perfection of kṣānti (Forbearance and Endurance) in this bhūmi without neglecting the others. He pays particular attention to the third saṅgraha-vastu (Promoting the good of others).

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The section dealing with this bhūmi presents a perplexing problem. The pāramitā of kṣānti is associated with this Stage, but the attributes and qualifications, that are described, belong to dhyāna (Musing). It seems probable that the original scheme of division was based on the three ṣikṣās (branches of instruction) of ṣila, citta and prajñā. The Bo. Bhū. has partially preserved it, though the Da. Bhū. ignores it. But this third bhūmi appears to deal with citta or samādhi, and not with kṣānti, which is tacked on at the end. The old scheme was recast and expanded in order to secure the symmetrical parallelism of the ten Perfections and the ten Stages.

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(4) Fourth Bhūmi, called Arciṣmatī (Radiant, Effulgent). The M. S. Al. explains that this bhūmi is so called because the "rays" of the bodhipakṣya-dharmas burn up the veil and obstruction of sin and ignorance (p. 182). Candrakīrti says: "Alors, dans le fils du Sugata, par la culture extrême des auxiliares de la parfaite illumination, naît un éclat qui est supérieur au resplendissement de cuivre. . . . Par conséquent, produisant le rayon du feu du savoir parfait, cette terre du bodhisattva est appelée Arciṣmatī." A bodhisattva now gains entrance to the light of the Doctrine by reflecting on the nature of the Worlds of things and living beings, of Space, of Consciousness, of the Truth, of the three realms of sensuous Desire, Form and Formlessness, and of noble and magnanimous Aspiration. He matures and perfects his knowledge by his firm resolution and his faith in the "Triple Jewel". He realises that all things arise and disappear, and that non-production is their nature. He thinks of Action, Becoming and Birth, of transmigratory existence and Liberation, of the beginning and the end, of non-existence and destruction. He practises the thirty-seven *bodhipakṣya-dharmas*. He gets rid of all wrong ideas based on the belief in a permanent *ātman*. He cultivates and acquires great, inexhaustible, infinite Energy, combined with ardour and zeal for the instruction and development of all beings. He especially cultivates the Perfection of Energy without neglecting the other *pāramitās*. He pays particular attention to the fourth *saṅgraha-vastu* in this *bhūmi* (*samān-ārthatā*).

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(5) Fifth *Bhūmi*, called *Sudurjayā* (“Very-difficult-to-conquer,” “Dure-à-gagner”). W. McGovern translates, “Difficult to surpass,” but this rendering does not convey the right sense of the name.⁹ The Stage is not “invincible”, as it is interpreted by L. de la Vallée Poussin (ERE. ii, 748). The *M. S. Al.* explains that this *bhūmi* is so called, because a bodhisattva performs the difficult feat of maturing others and guarding his own mind (p. 182). But Candrakīrti says : “*Le bodhisattva, fixé dans la cinquième terre du bodhisattva, ne peut être vaincu par les devaputra Māras, qui se trouvent dans tous les univers ; à plus forte raison par d’autres, serviteurs de Māra, etc. C’est pourquoi le nom de cette terre est Sudurjayā* (*Madhyamakāvatāra*: Le Muséon, 1907, p. 312). A bodhisattva regards all the principles of Buddhahood, past, present and future, with pure thought and equanimity. He thinks in the same way of conduct, meditation, doubt, speculation, knowledge of the right Way and the perfection of all beings. He comprehends the four Noble Truths. He also understands other aspects of Truth, e.g. relative Truth, absolute Truth, the Truths of characteristics, of division, of origination, of things and phenomena, of decay, of non-production, of initiation into the knowledge of the Way, and of the appearance of Buddha-knowledge.¹⁰ He thus realises that all things are empty, futile and worthless. He wonders why the foolish worldly people are attached to their perishable bodies and are the slaves of pleasure and pride. He exerts himself all the more for their development and liberation. He acquires the admirable qualities of mindfulness, fortitude, discretion, and skilfulness in the choice of the means for attaining his ends. He practises all the *saṅgraha-vastus* in this *bhūmi*, and especially cultivates the *dhyāna-pāramitā* without neglecting the others. He also acquires a knowledge of the arts and sciences like writing, arithmetic, medicine, etc. He preaches the Doctrine and obtains the *dhāraṇīs* for his protection.

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(6) Sixth *Bhūmi*, called *Abhimukhī* (“Face-to-face,” “Turned towards,” “Showing the face,” “Droit-en-face,” “die *Bhūmi* der Klarheit,” etc.). The *M. S. Al.* explains that this *bhūmi* is so called because the *bodhisattva*, practising the Perfection of Wisdom, now stands face to face with both *saṃsāra* (transmigratory existence) and *nirvāṇa* (Liberation). But Candrakīrti says: “Parce qu'on y comprend que la nature des choses est semblable à un reflet, parce que les *bodhisattvas* dans la sixième terre s'appuient sur la vérité du chemin, parce qu'elle est tournée vers le principe des parfaits Buddhas, cette terre s'appelle *Abhimukhī*” (“Tournée vers”: *Madhyamakāvatāra*, *Le Muséon*, 1911, p. 272). A *bodhisattva* now understands the ten aspects of the equality and sameness of all things and phenomena. All things and phenomena are signless and have no definite characteristics; they are not produced and not originated; they are unrelated and also uncorrupted since the beginning; they are indescribable; they are neither admitted nor rejected; they are like a dream, an optical illusion, an echo, the disc of the moon seen in the water, an image and a magically created unreal object.¹¹ They are free from the duality of Existence and Non-existence. When a *bodhisattva* looks upon all things in this way, he acquires the *kṣānti* called *ānulomiki*. He also comprehends the formula of the *pratītya-samutpāda*. He realises that all sins and errors depend on the mind. He understands that all things are empty and characterless. He is absolutely free from Desire. He gets rid of the notions of “I” and “Other”, “Doer” and “Knower”, “Existence” and “Non-existence.” He severs all connection with the “compounded” elements and experiences many *samādhis*, which are related to the principle of Emptiness. His thoughts are now perfectly firm, steady, profound and pure, and he resolutely sets his face towards Buddha-knowledge. He especially cultivates the Perfection of Wisdom (*prajñā*) without neglecting the others.

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¹¹ [Note text missing from page]

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(7) Seventh *Bhūmi*, called *Dūraṅgamā* (“Far-going,” “Far-reaching,” “Va-loin,” “die *Bhūmi* der weiten Fernsicht,” “far-distant Attainment,” etc.). The *M. S. Al.* explains that this *bhūmi* is so called because it leads to the end of the only Way, to the consummation of the Discipline (p. 182). A *bodhisattva* now acquires great wisdom in the choice of expedients for helping others. He understands that all the Buddhas are identical with their spiritual cosmic Body. He participates in the infinite attributes of the Buddhas, and sees their multifarious physical bodies. He discerns the thoughts and feelings of others. He practises all the ten *pāramitās* at each moment. This Stage witnesses the complete fulfilment of the practical aspects of a *bodhisattva's* discipline, and now he begins to attach more importance to its meditative and metaphysical aspects. He has conquered all the passions and sins and is free from them. His thoughts, words and deeds are pure, and he is in possession of all the factors of Enlightenment. He works without effort or ulterior motive. He transcends the lower wisdom of the Hinayāna. He attains Liberation, but does not realise personal *nirvāṇa*. He enters the great ocean of Buddha-knowledge. He is free from the four *viparyāsas*. He especially cultivates the *pāramitā* “*upāya-kauçalya*” without neglecting the others.

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