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The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature c8.s5: VI. The Dhūta-guṇas

The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature c8.s5

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VI. The Dhūta-guṇas

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The *abhijñās* are to be acquired by living as a hermit and practising the *dhūta-guṇas* (ascetic practices). The word *dhūta-guṇa* or *dhuta-guṇa* is generally understood to mean the “qualities or attributes of a dhuta or dhūta (i.e. a person who has shaken off sins),” from the root dhu (to shake). Or the word may be a synonym of dhauta, derived from the root dhāv, and thus signify “a purified, cleansed, holy person”. T. W. Rhys Davids and W. Stede derive it from dhu and interpret it as meaning “a scrupulous or punctilious person” (Pāli Dicy. s.v.). The Tibetan equivalent of dhūta-guṇa is sbyaṅs-pahi-yon-tan, and sbyaṅs-pa means “washed or used”, from the verb sbyoṅ-ba (= to clean or cultivate). It seems likely that dhūta here is derived from the root dhāv and not from dhu. S. C. Das explains that dhūta in this term does not refer to the person, who has “shaken off” his sins or who has been “cleansed”, but that the adjectival participle qualifies the substantive guṇa. He translates: “talents or qualifications kept up, used or practised,—ascetic practices” (Tib. Dicy., Das., 939a). The verb sbyoṅ-ba is often used to denote the purification and cultivation of the mind by training and exercise (Tib. Dicy., Jäschke, 405b). This interpretation seems to be more acceptable than that given in the Pāli Dictionary.

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The Pāli texts mention thirteen dhūtaṅgas, 231 but the Sanskrit treatises speak of twelve dhūta-guṇas. 232 They are earnestly recommended by the author of the Sam. Rā. 233 The great saint, Kāçyapa, was an expert in such practices. 234 Çāntideva and the author of the Da. Bhū. also teach that a bodhisattva should persistently practise them. 235

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The twelve items are not placed in the same order in the Dh. S. and the M. Vy. They are as follows (M. Vy. Section 49—Pr. Pā. Aṣṭa., p. 387):—

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(1) Pāṃçu-kūlikaḥ. The bodhisattva wears clothes made of rags taken from a dust-heap (Skt. Dicy. M.W., 560b).

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(2) Traicīvarikaḥ. The bodhisattva does not possess more than three robes at a time. Cīvara means “the dress of a Buddhist mendicant or any mendicant” (Skt. Dicy. M.W., 327b).

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(3) Nāmatikaḥ (Nāmantikaḥ in the M. Vy.). The meaning of this word is not clear. The word namataḥ occurs in the M. Vy. (Section 233, page 381) among vastra-nāmāni (names of articles of clothing), where it is rendered as phyin-pa in the Tibetan. It also occurs in Section 272 (page 575) of the M. Vy. Namataka is also found in the Cullavagga:—“anujānāmi bhikkhave satthakaṃ namatakanti (v, 11.1; Vinaya, ii, page 115); “tenkho pana samayena chabbaggiyā bhikkhuniyo . . . namatakam dhārenti” (x. 10.4—Vinaya ii, page 267). T. W. Rhys Davids and H. Oldenberg translate it as "felt" in these passages.²³⁶ E. Burnouf is of the opinion that *nāmatikah* is a meaningless word²³⁷ and may perhaps be changed to "*kāmbalikah*"; but F. Max Müller rejects this suggestion and points out that the Chinese equivalent of *namata* is "hair-cloth" or "cloth made of hair".²³⁸ The Tibetan term, *phyin-pa*, is thus explained by S. C. Das, who also mentions *namata* and *kambalya* as the Sanskrit equivalents:—"the quantity of wool necessary for making a blanket; felt much used by Dokpa nomads of Tibet for tents and carpets" (Tib. Dicy, 836*a*). Csoma de Kőrös also gives the form *nāmacika* (p. 19), and translates: "clothed or clad in felt."

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A *bodhisattva*, who practises this *dhūta-guṇa*, wears a garment made of felt or wool.

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(4) *Paiṇḍapātikaḥ*. The *bodhisattva* lives only on food obtained by begging from door to door (and does not accept invitations to the houses of the laymen, etc.).

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(5) *Aikāsanikaḥ* (*Ekāsanikaḥ* in the *Dh. S.* and the *Pr. Pā. Aṣṭa.*). The *bodhisattva* eats his meal at one sitting, or he has only one seat. The Tibetans translate, *stan-gcig-pa* (*M. Vy.*, p. 86). *Stan* means "a seat, mat, anything to sit upon". E. Burnouf thinks that the Tibetan equivalent means, "having only one seat."²³⁹ But the practice of eating at one sitting is mentioned in Buddhist literature and is probably referred to here.²⁴⁰ The Tibetan version is quite literal, and does not explain the meaning of the word. Csoma de Kőrös translates: "having only one mat" (p. 19).

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(6) *Khalu-paścād-bhaktikaḥ*. This term is also puzzling. The Pāli form is *khalu-pacchā-bhattika* and is interpreted by T. W. Rhys Davids and W. Stede as meaning "a person, who refuses food offered to him after the normal time (i.e. midday)". But the prefix *khalu* in the Sanskrit word seems to be inexplicable. E. Burnouf boldly conjectured that the whole word should be read as *svādv-apaścād-bhaktika*, and translated as "celui qui ne mange pas de douceur après son repas."²⁴¹ The Tibetan equivalent, "*Zas phyis mi len-pa*" is interpreted by E. Burnouf as meaning "celui qui ne prend rien après son repas": (*Zas* = food, *len-pa* = to receive, to accept. Tib. Dicy., Das, 1093*a*, 1220*a*). The Sanskrit word appears to be meaningless in its usual form. E. Burnouf’s emendation seems plausible. Csoma de Kőrös translates: "taking no food a second time on the same day" (p. 19).

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(7) *Āraṇyakaḥ*. The *bodhisattva* lives in the woods.

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(8) *Vṛkṣa-mūlikaḥ*. The *bodhisattva* dwells at the foot of a tree, or under a tree.

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(9) *Abhyavakāśikaḥ*. The *bodhisattva* lives in an open unsheltered place (not under a roof in a house). It is derived from *avakāśa* (open or wide space, Skt. Dicy. M.W., 87*c*). The Pāli word *abbhokāsika* is translated by T. W. Rhys Davids and W. Stede as “one who lives in the open, the practice of certain ascetics” (Pāli Dicy., s.v.). H. Oldenberg suggests the reading *abhrāvakāśika*,²⁴² which means, “exposed to the rain, and so doing penance; not seeking shelter from the rain; having the clouds for shelter; open to the sky” (Skt. Dicy. M.W., 74*b*). This word occurs in the *Manu-smṛti* (vi, 23, page 117), “*grīṣme pañcatapās tu syād varṣāsu-abhrāvakāśikaḥ*.” But this suggestion seems to be rather far-fetched and unnecessary.

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(10) *Çmaçānikaḥ*. The *bodhisattva* lives in or near a cemetery, or visits a cemetery or cremation-ground frequently.

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(11) *Naiṣadikaḥ* (*naiṣadyikaḥ* in the *Dh. S.* and the *Pr. Pā. Aṣṭa.*). The *bodhisattva* remains in a sitting posture while sleeping. The Tibetan equivalent *cog-bu-pa* also means, “one who lives in a lonely mountain-cavern, or in a small tent that accommodates but one man” (Tib. Dicy. Das, 384*b*). Csoma de Kőrös prefers this interpretation (p. 20).

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(12) *Yāthā-saṃstarikaḥ* (*Yāthā-saṃstarikaḥ* in the *Dh. S.*). T. W. Rhys Davids and W. Stede interpret the Pāli word *yathā-santhatika* as “accepting whatever seat is offered” (Pāli Dicy.). But H. Kern translates: “Spreading a night-couch where one happens to be.”²⁴³ The Tibetan version is vague and may be interpreted in two ways, according to E. Burnouf: (1) “Celui qui reste à la place où il est”, (2) “Celui qui garde son tapis tel qu’il l’a une fois placé.”²⁴⁴ As this ascetic practice is forbidden to nuns, H. Kern’s interpretation is likely to be correct. S. C. Das translates the Tibetan term as “a recluse, who stays where he is” (Tib. Dicy., 1080*a*). Csoma de Kőrös translates: “who accommodates himself as he can” (p. 20).

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Thus we see that the old Indian practice of *tapas* (austerities) has become an integral part of the discipline of a *bodhisattva*. The beginnings of this innovation may be noted in the *Lal. V.*, which adds *tapas* to the virtues of charity and moral conduct in several passages. Gautama Buddha is said to have practised rites and penances for many æons, and to have lived the higher life by cultivating liberality, virtuous conduct and *tapas*.²⁴⁵ He has fulfilled his resolve with *tapas*.²⁴⁶ *Tapas* is indeed declared to be indispensable for Enlightenment, which cannot be attained without performing severe penances for many *kalpas*.²⁴⁷ The *Mtu.* also describes Gautama Buddha as "endowed with virtue, forbearance and *tapas*."²⁴⁸ This tendency to exalt *tapas* is a curious feature of Buddhist Sanskrit literature, though the *Lal. V.* and the *Mtu.* also faithfully insert Gautama Buddha's first sermon, in which he condemned such austerities and mortifications (*ātma-kāya-klamatha*).²⁴⁹ Çūra praises the *bodhisattva* Viçvantara for practising *tapas* during half a year.²⁵⁰ But the glorification of *tapas* and the *dhūta-guṇas* reaches its climax in that authoritative treatise, the *Sam. Rā.* Its author enumerates ten advantages that result from the practice of the *dhūta-guṇas*. He says :—"There are ten advantages that accrue to a *bodhisattva*, who is firmly established in the noble family of recluses that are content with the four requisites. He is free from deceit and loquacity (or from deceitful talk). He does not exalt himself; and he does not revile (or decry) others. He moves about in the houses (of the laity) without undue friendliness or repugnance. He preaches the Doctrine (literally, "bestows the gift of the *dharma*") in a disinterested spirit. His religious teaching is effective". (*Sam. Rā.*, fol. 119*a*, 6 ff.)

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It is not difficult to understand the causes of this intrusion of the idea of *tapas* into Buddhist philosophy. Although Gautama Buddha clearly and emphatically condemned austerities and also rejected Devadatta's suggestions, yet we find that the *dhūta-guṇas* are mentioned in several passages of Pāli literature.²⁵¹ The *Milinda-pañha* devotes a whole chapter to them (chapter vi); it enumerates twenty-eight virtues (*guṇa*) that are inherent in them and eighteen good qualities that are acquired by the monks through these practices.²⁵² The Mahāyānist writers also approve of *tapas*, though Kṣemendra reverts to the original teaching and proclaims its futility.²⁵³ But he was only a voice crying in the wilderness. It may be surmised that the acceptance of *tapas* as a condition of the *bodhisattva*'s discipline was due to several irresistible tendencies that were at work in India. The Jainas valued *tapas* very highly as a means of Liberation.²⁵⁴ It destroys karma and purifies the soul, as the *Uttarādhyayana-sūtra* teaches. The views of the Jainas are referred to in the Pāli canon.²⁵⁵ The *Majjhima-Nikāya* speaks of other preachers, who taught the ordinary social virtues and *tapas*.256 The competition of these rival sects led the Buddhists to practise similar austerities, as the people admired and followed such self-torturing ascetics. Vanity may have been the motive of many monks, who adopted the *dhūta-guṇas*. The common people always revere the spiritual athletes, who can curb and control the body and its appetites with such self-restraint and resolution. It is also probable that some earnest souls are born with a deep-seated longing for such a life of excessive self-denial. They wish to enjoy the spiritual luxury of completely dominating and crushing the sensual elements of human nature. Perhaps a few are called to this task in each generation, and they fulfil their peculiar mission. The history of all great spiritual movements exhibits this phase of stern asceticism. The Greeks as a people loved life, beauty and joy; but they too produced Diogenes, “the mad Socrates,” and the School of the Cynics.257 Jesus Christ “came eating and drinking”, and St. Paul advised Timothy to drink a little wine for the sake of his health.258 But the Christian Church honoured the ascetics of Egypt and Syria, and the names of St. Anthony and St. Simeon Stylites are famous in world-history.259 Thus it seems to be the universal law of historical development that Religion should have a few fanatical heroes, who assert the supremacy of Mind over Matter in the most striking and uncompromising fashion.

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It is probable that the recorded account of the austerities practised by Gautama Buddha himself suggested the idea of *tapas* to the later Buddhists. It is true that Buddha repudiated those experiences as fruitless and dangerous, but the fact remained that he had gone through them at a certain stage in his career.260 The champions of *tapas* may have appealed to those texts, as the Christian ascetics referred to Christ’s long fast of forty days. Further, it was held that all the events and experiences of Gautama Buddha’s life would be repeated in the last earthly life of every advanced *bodhisattva* before he attained Enlightenment. He must be born in a wealthy family, marry, renounce his home, and so forth.261 But the episode of the penances was a stumbling-block for these devout Buddhists, who idealised Buddha in this way. The *Lal. V.* explains the laudable motives of the wise *bodhisattva* in practising *duṣkara-caryā* (austerities). He wished to exhibit a wonderful deed to the world. He intended to humiliate, confound and instruct the deluded heretics by excelling them even in those austerities, which they prized, but which he really knew to be vain and foolish.262 He desired to show the fruits of perfect Wisdom and to analyse the different factors of meditation. He aimed at utilising the merits of his virtuous deeds. He hoped to convert the devas by a special form of meditation. He could thus display his physical strength and endurance and also acquire fortitude.262 He thought that he could thus more easily convert the people. He aspired to cultivate the āsphānaka meditation, which is difficult even for the pratyeka-buddhas.262 He expected to obtain yoga-kṣema (peace from bondage, uttermost safety, Liberation). The Mtu. also declares that the salvation of all creatures was the bodhisattva's only motive in practising penance.263 The specious pleas adduced in the Lal. V. show that the Buddhists found it difficult to reconcile this episode with the perfect wisdom of a spiritually advanced bodhisattva. But even the Lal. V. admits that the bodhisattva derived some positive benefit from his tapas. Thus the old tradition relative to Gautama Buddha's own tapas could be interpreted in such a way as to induce the Buddhist monks to engage in similar practices. But Kṣemendra resolutely adheres to the ancient doctrine and consistently condemns tapas. He goes so far as to say that the bodhisattva Siddhārtha had to perform penance, because he had committed a sin in his previous existence.264 It may be inferred that there were at all times two schools of thought among the Buddhists. Some approved of tapas and the dhūta-guṇas, while others condemned them. It is worthy of note that they are not discussed in such standard treatises as the Bo. Bhū. and the M. S. Al.

Cites (10)