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The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature c9.s2: VII. Upāya-Kauçalya-Pāramitā (also Upāya-Kauçala)

The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature c9.s2

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VII. Upāya-Kauçalya-Pāramitā (also Upāya-Kauçala)

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This is the most important of the four supplementary pāramitās. It is also given as upāya-pāramitā.⁵⁷² It may be explained as "skilfulness or wisdom in the choice and adoption of the means or expedients for converting others or helping them". It is especially related to a bodhisattva's work as a preacher and teacher. The Mahāyāna was a "revival" movement and attached great importance to successful propaganda. The Bodhisattva-bhūmi declares that it is a bodhisattva's duty to be an effective preacher (avandhya-dharma-deçako bhavati, fol. 152a, 6.2). According to the Pr. Pā. Çata., all the pāramitās are fulfilled by preaching.⁵⁷³ The Sad. Pu. also emphasises the importance of such missionary zeal.⁵⁷⁴ The Da. Bhū. teaches that a bodhisattva becomes a preacher in the fifth bhūmi (stage).⁵⁷⁵ Preaching and teaching are known as a bodhisattva's "gift of the Doctrine or Truth" (dharma-dāna).⁵⁷⁶ It is more valuable and meritorious than the gifts of material objects (āmiṣa-dāna). A bodhisattva knows all kinds of devices and expedients for the instruction and discipline of the living beings (Bo. Bhū., fol. 152b, 5.2). The Merit acquired by such service is a treasure that belongs to him.⁵⁷⁷

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Upāya-kauçalya is frequently mentioned along with the six pāramitās in the Pr. Pā. Aṣṭa.,⁵⁷⁸ but it was subsequently raised to the rank of a pāramitā. Its object is stated in the Bodhisattva-bhūmi to be the conversion of those who are hostile or indifferent to the faith, and the development and liberation of those who already profess Buddhism (Bo. Bhū., fol. 116b.5). This Perfection is generally exercised in order to gain access to the people, to win their sympathy, to explain the principles of the religion in a popular manner and to facilitate propaganda in other ways. A bodhisattva should always adapt his teaching to the capacity of the audience. He is like a physician, who prescribes different remedies for different diseases and different persons.⁵⁷⁹ He speaks only of heaven to those who desire a happy rebirth.⁵⁸⁰ He does not lay heavy burdens on his congregation. He does not ask them to keep long fasts, but shows an easier way to the simple, pious folk, who try to increase their "Merit".⁵⁸¹ He does not frighten them with the profound teaching of Emptiness, which he reserves for more advanced aspirants.582

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A *bodhisattva* can adopt other methods suggested by his *upāya-kauśalya*. The *Sad. Pu.* relates some interesting parables, which illustrate this Perfection. It seems that trickery and falsehood are permitted, if the end of converting or helping others is achieved. The *pāramitā*, as described in the *Sad. Pu.*, comes perilously near the vice of duplicity and insincerity. Some Christian divines have also recommended "economy of truth" and "pious frauds" in the interests of religion.583 But *upāya-kauśalya* can also take many unobjectionable forms. Two parables of the *Sad. Pu.* may be briefly related as follows :—

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*Parable of the Burning House.* There was an old man, who was wealthy and owned a ramshackle dilapidated house with but one door. When he was outside the house one day, he saw that it was on fire. He had five, ten or twenty children, who were playing in the house. He did not know what to do. If he had entered the house and tried to take hold of the boys in order to save them, the foolish children would have run away from him in all directions. He called to the boys and cried : " Come, my children. The house is on fire." But the boys did not heed his words, and they did not even understand what he meant by " fire ", so ignorant were they. He then showed his *upāya-kauśalya* by calling out : " Boys, I have put bullock-carts, goat-carts, deer-carts and other beautiful toys for you outside the door. Come out and take them." When the children heard this, they straightway ran out of the house and were saved from the jaws of death. The father gave them splendid and costly carriages.

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In this parable, the father is Buddha ; the children are ordinary men and women ; the burning house is life in the world ; the three carts are the three Ways of the Buddhist Church, which lead to different degrees and kinds of sanctity ; the costly carriage is the highest Way, the Mahāyāna.584

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*Parable of the Lost Son.* A certain poor man had a beloved son, and it so happened that the son left his home and wandered to a far country. He lived in the strange land for fifty long years, but still remained poor. During all those years, his father throve and prospered in the world and rose to be a rich man with much substance and many servants and attendants. Now that poor young man, wandering about in search of food and raiment, came to the town and the street in which his father lived. He saw that rich man sitting at the door of a fine mansion, and knew not that he saw his father. But the father saw his face and recognised him at once. The poor young man was filled with fear at the thought that he had perhaps come into the wrong street and might be punished for his rashness. So he ran away in great haste. But the old father said to his servants: “Go, my men, and quickly bring that fellow to me.” When the servants came upon the young man, he cried, “I have done nothing against you... O, I am undone.” He fainted and fell to the ground. His father looked after him, but did not tell him who he really was. The old man now exhibited his *upāya-kauśalya* in this way. He let the poor fellow go away. He then called two poor men of humble origin and said to them: “Go, and hire that young man for double wages, and tell him to work here in my house and clean the receptacle of filth.” So the son worked as a labourer in that house and his father saw him from the window. Then the old man put on dirty clothes, took a basket in his hand, and, going near unto his son, said: “Work here, my man; do not go anywhere else... Look upon me as your own father... Henceforward you are unto me like my son.” In this way, the father found the chance of speaking to his son, who thereupon felt happier in the house. But he continued to live in his hovel of straw and did the same menial work for twenty years. At last, the rich man fell sick and felt that his days were numbered. So he first gave much wealth to the young man, and then he gathered together his kinsfolk and fellow-citizens and said to them: “He is my son: I am his father. To him I leave all my possessions.” The son was greatly astonished at this, and rejoiced exceedingly in his heart.

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In this parable, the father is Buddha: the son is every pious Buddhist: the labour of cleaning the refuse-barrel is the lower teaching about *nirvāṇa* (Liberation); and the declaration of the filial relation is the higher doctrine of the Mahāyāna.585

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There are other stories of the same type. A man causes a false message to be sent to his children in order to induce them to use a certain beneficial medicine.586 That was his *upāya-kauśalya*. The *Sad. Pu.* teaches that Gautama Buddha really attained Enlightenment many æons ago and lives for ever; he pretends to be born as a man and attain *bodhi* under the tree. He does so in order to help mankind, and this is his *upāya-kauśalya*.587 An advanced *bodhisattva* can assume different forms in order to preach to different congregations. And so on. It is clear that a certain amount of trickery and falsehood is regarded as permissible.

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The *bodhisattva*, who acts as a preacher, must have certain moral qualifications. He should be patient and unworldly. He should not be afraid of sacrificing his life, if need be.588 He should not ask the people for gifts. He should avoid the company of nuns and women. He should not mix with butchers, actors, and other low people. If he preaches to women, he should not be alone, and he should beware of frivolity. He should not think of food and raiment, but devote himself entirely to his work.589 He should not keep back anything, as he should not have the "closed fist" of the teacher (*ācārya-muṣṭi*, *Bo. Bhū.*, fol. 44*b* 2.2). He should not discourage the people or preach the lower ideal of the Hīnayāna; but he should not condemn the Hīnayāna in a bitter or intolerant spirit.590 He should not quarrel with the teachers of other sects or enter into unseemly controversy with them. He should not praise himself. He should not judge and censure others harshly, and he should be very tactful in dealing with sinners and heretics.591

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Such a preacher needs three other things for complete success in his mission. These are: (1) the *saṅgraha-vastus* (means or items of sympathy or conversion); (2) the *pratisamvids*; and (3) the *dhāraṇīs*. These requisites of effective propaganda may be discussed very briefly.

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1. The *Saṅgraha-vastus*. The Buddhist leaders showed great sagacity in exhorting the preacher to cultivate four virtues or practices in order to facilitate the task of converting the people to the new faith. These four requisites of propaganda are called *saṅgraha-vastūni* (Pāli: *saṅgaha-vatthūni*). The second word is sometimes omitted, as at *Lka.*, 346, verse 656, and *Sad. Pu.*, 142. This term has been translated in several ways:—

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*L. de la Vallée Poussin*: (i) "Topics leading to the sympathy of creatures" (*ERE*, ii, 740*a*). (ii) "Moyens de séduction" (*Le Muséon*, xii, 1911, p. 160).

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*H. Kern*: "Articles of sociability" (*SBE*., vol. xxi, p. 140, note 4).

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*L. Feer*: "Les bases de la réunion" (*Ava. Ça.* tr., p. 9).

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*S. Lévi*: (i) "Les matières de rapprochement" (*M. S. Al.*, tr., p. 319). (ii) "Les choses de cohésion" (*M. S. Al.*, tr., p. 201 note).

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This is S. Lévi's rendering of the Tibetan equivalent.

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*E. Burnouf*: “Les éléments de la bienveillance” (“Lotus”, p. 405). *P. E. Foucaux*: “Les bases de la réunion” (*Lal. V.* tr., p. 36). *T. W. Rhys Davids and C. A. F. Rhys Davids*: “Grounds or Bases of popularity” (“Dialogues”, iii, 145, 223). *E. B. Cowell and R. Neil*: “Elements of popularity” (*Divy.*, p. 692). *S. Tachibana*: “Elements of friendliness” (“Ethics”, p. 70). *T. W. Rhys Davids and W. Stede*: “Objects (characteristics) of sympathy” (Pāli Dicy.). *F. Max Müller*: “Elements of popularity” (*Dh. S.*, p. 39).

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The Pāli word *saṅgaha* means: (1) collecting, gathering; (2) kind disposition, kindliness, sympathy, friendliness, help, assistance, protection, favour (Pāli Dicy.). M. Anesaki interprets it as “sympathy or altruism” (ERE, v. 451). A comparison of several Sanskrit texts would perhaps lead us to prefer a very literal interpretation (viz. “gathering together”, “converting”). We read of *sattvānāṃ saṅgrahaḥ* in *Kar. Pu.* (p. 65). The *bodhisattvas* are said to “bring together” the creatures (*sattvān saṅgṛhṇanti*, *Pr. Pā. Ṣata.*, p. 280, line 12); *sattva-gaṇasya saṅgṛhītā* (*M. S. Al.*, 117.19); *saṅgraha-vastu-iñānena saṅgṛhya janatām-aham* (*Lal. V.*, 437.15). It is clear that *saṅgraha* refers more to the creatures than to the *bodhisattva*. But such renderings as “popularity” or “sympathy” make us think of it as something possessed by a *bodhisattva*. The Tibetan word *bsdu bahi dṅospo* means: “essentials of partnership or cooperation” (J. Rahder, “Glossary,” p. 180; *M. Vy.*, p. 71; Tib. Dicy., Das, 724b). It is perhaps preferable to translate, “Means of conversion”. There is also a suggestion of “sympathy” in the term, but not of “popularity”.

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The four *saṅgaha-vatthūni* are enumerated in several passages of the Pāli canon.⁵⁹² These are: *dānaṃ, peyyavajjaṃ, attha-cariyā* and *samānattatā*. This is a fixed and invariable formula in the Pāli scriptures. But it is a remarkable fact that we can trace its growth in the Sanskrit treatises. Thus we find that only *artha-caryā* is mentioned at *Mtu.*, iii, 383.11 and iii, 407.13. Açvaghoṣa mentions only the last two (*artha-caryā* and *sāmānyaṃ sukha-duḥkhayoḥ*) as the qualities of a good friend (*Saund. Kā.*, xi. 17). Only the first two are spoken of at *Pr. Pā. Ṣata.*, p. 280, line 12. The *Bo. Bhū.* devotes a whole chapter to the four *vastus*, but it particularly emphasises *dāna* and *samān-ārthatā* at fol. 31a and 31b. The last is again omitted by Çūra at Jā. Mā., p. 95, line 12, while only three are mentioned in the same treatise at p. 2, line 1; the fourth vastu is indicated only by ādi and prabhṛtibhiḥ (= et cetera). It is probable that the complete formula grew up slowly and gradually in the Sanskrit tradition, and that the fourth vastu gained recognition at a late period. Hence perhaps the constant reiteration of samān-ārthatā in the Bodhisattva-bhūmi. This treatise does not discuss this vastu in detail with reference to the ninefold classification, which is applied to the pāramitās and the other three vastus. This circumstance may also point to the comparatively late origin of the fourth vastu. Another puzzling problem is raised by the entire absence of the vastus from the long list of a bodhisattva's duties and practices, which is found at several places in the Pr. Pā. Çata. (pp. 1182 ff., 1373 ff., 375 ff.). The familiar vastus are conspicuous by their absence in these passages, though they are mentioned in the Lal. V., the Da. Bhū., the Mtu., the Ava. Ça. and other treatises (Mtu., 1, 3, 11-12; Da. Bhū., 22.3, 57.16, 45.13; Ava. Ça., 1.16, 12; M. S. Al., 116; Lal. V., 160.6; M. Vy., xxxv, p. 71; Dh. S., xix, p. 4).

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⁵⁹² [Note: The text does not contain the footnote content on this page.]

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The four vastus are as follows :—

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(a) Dāna (Giving, liberality, generosity).

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(b) The second vastu is given in several forms, though the meaning is the same: "pleasant, agreeable speech." The usual form is priya-vāditā (M. Vy., xxv, p. 71; M. S. Al., p. 116; Bo. Bhū., fol. 32a, line 3, section 1; etc.). But other variants are also met with, e.g.

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priya-vadya (Lal. V., 38.17).

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priya-vacanam (Jā. Mā., 95.12; Dh. S., xix, p. 4).

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priya-vadyatā (Da. Bhū., 45.13; Pr. Pā. Çata., p. 280, line 12).

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priya-vākya (Lal. V., 160.6).

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priy-ākhyānam (M. S. Al., 116.4).

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priya-vādyam (Mtu., i, 3.12).

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The following renderings have been suggested :—

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T. W. and C. A. F. Rhys Davids : "Kind words, kindly speech" ("Dialogues", iii, 145, 183); "Affability" ("Dialogues", iii, 183, note 2).

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S. Yamakami : "Loving words" ("Systems", p. 306).

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S. Tachibana : "Kind-wordedness" ("Ethics", p. 70).

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These two subjects, Charity and Speech, have been discussed above.

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(c) The third vastu is given in two forms :—
(i) *artha-caryā* (*M. Vy.*, xxv, p. 71 ; *Bo. Bhū.*, fol. 87*b*. etc.).
(ii) *artha-kriyā* (*Lal. V.*, 182.6).

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*Artha-caryā* is the word that occurs most frequently. It has been translated in several ways :—

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*T. W. and C. A. F. Rhys Davids*: “Justice” (“Dialogues”, iii, 223).

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*T. W. and C. A. F. Rhys Davids*: “Sagacious conduct” (“Dialogues”, iii, 145).

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*T.W. and C. A. F. Rhys Davids*: “Beneficence” (“Dialogues”, iii, 183, note 2).

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*L. de la Vallée Poussin*: “Service” (Le Muséon, 1911, xii, 161).

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*L. de la Vallée Poussin*: “Putting into practice rules of altruism” (*ERE*, ii, 740*a*).

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*J. S. Speyer*: “Succour” (*Jā. Mā.* tr., p. 2, line 15).

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*J. Alwis*: “Fruitful conduct, well-being in law” (*JBTS.*, 1894, vol. ii, part 2, p. 22, note 2).

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*S. Lévi*: “La conduite dans le Sens” (*M. S. Al.*, tr., p. 201).

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*H. Kern*: (i) “Officiousness” (?) (“Manual”, p. 67). (ii) “Promoting another’s interest” (*SBE.*, vol xxi, p. 140).

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Perhaps it is best to translate: “Promoting the interest of others.” The hallowed Biblical phrase “Doing good” seems to be a suitable and literal rendering.

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The *Bodhisattva-bhūmi* explains *artha-caryā* in detail as follows :—

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A *bodhisattva* does good to others by exhorting them to the practice of virtue, and his *artha-caryā* has the effect of inducing the people to pursue the Good (*pravartakaḥ kuçale pravartanāt*). It leads to action in accordance with the dictates of religion. It removes the people from evil conditions and establishes them in the Good, and it may be described as *avatāraka* (that which makes one enter). A *bodhisattva* thus renders service to those, to whom he has already preached the faith. He is merciful, pious and disinterested in spirit. The most general form of his service to others consists in ripening the beings who are spiritually immature, and in liberating those who are already mature. He also helps others to further their worldly interests by earning, keeping and increasing their wealth (literally, “objects of enjoyment,” *bhogānām*) through virtuous activity of various kinds. He persuades others to think of their eternal happiness after death and admits them to the Order of monks. He wins praise from all, and lives happily, perfectly serene in mind and body. But it is indeed a very difficult task to render service to certain types of individuals. There are people, who have not done anything to accumulate “Roots of Merit” (*kuçala-mūlāni*); others have once lived in great prosperity and affluence, but have fallen on evil days; and then there are the misguided outsiders and heretics. It must be very trying for a *bodhisattva* to do good to such persons, but he does it all the same, and this is his “difficult service” (*duṣkarā artha-caryā*). He also performs a kind of “all-round” service (*sarvato-mukhī*) by conferring the blessing of faith on the unbelievers, and by giving virtue to the wicked, wisdom to the foolish, and a charitable heart to those who are selfish and niggardly. He shows favour and sympathy to those who deserve it, and he punishes and restrains those who deserve to be treated in that manner. He rouses the consciences of those who have fallen into the adverse condition of moral insensibility, and makes them feel noble shame. He preaches the three Ways according to the capacity of the hearers.⁵⁹³ (*Bo. Bhū.*, fol. 87*b*, 88*a*, 88*b*.)

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⁵⁹³ (*Bo. Bhū.*, fol. 87*b*, 88*a*, 88*b*.)

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(*d*) The fourth *vastu* is given as *samān-ārthatā* in Sanskrit and *samānattatā* in Pāli. The form *samārthatā* is also found (*M. S. Al.*, 116.4) There is a great divergence of opinion with regard to the meaning of this word. The following renderings have been suggested:—

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Böhtlingk and Roth (s.v. *samānārtha*): “denselben Zweck habend verfolgend.”

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T. W. Rhys Davids: “Impartiality” (“Dialogues”, iii, 145).

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T. W. Rhys Davids: “Impartiality to one as to another” (“Dialogues”, iii, 184).

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S. Lévi: “le sens en commun” (*M. S. Al.*, tr., p. 201).

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E. Burnouf: “la qualité d’avoir un bien commun” (“Lotus,” pp. 405–6).

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S. Yamakami: “Sharing with others” (“Systems”, p. 306).

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L. de la Vallée Poussin: “Impartialité : son égal intérêt au bien propre et au bien des autres” (*Le Muséon*, xii, 160).

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L. de la Vallée Poussin: “Practising ourselves the virtues we recommend to our neighbours” (*ERE*, ii, 740*a*).

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S. Dasgupta : “ Sharing the joy and sorrow of others ” (“ Mysticism ”, p. 106). H. Kern : (i) “ Pursuit of a common aim ” (SBE., vol. xxi, p. 140, note 4). (ii) “ Co-operation ” (“ Manual ”, p. 67). J. Alwis : “ Regarding all as one’s self ” (JBTS., 1894, vol. ii, part 2, p. 22). Pali Dictionary : “ Equanimity, impartiality ” . . . “ state of equality, i.e. sensus communis or feeling of common good ” (s.v. samānattatā and saṅgaha). P. Oltramare : “ Ils pratiquent eux-mêmes ce qu’ils conseillent de faire ” (“ Bouddhique ”, p. 389). D. T. Suzuki : “ Engaging in the same work ” (“ Studies ”, p. 451).

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This term has also been explained by some Buddhist writers, and L. de la Vallée Poussin follows the Bo. Bhū. in his second rendering, “ practising ourselves the virtue we recommend to our neighbours.” The Bo. Bhū. paraphrases the word thus : “ Here the bodhisattva himself pursues the same Ideal or Aim and the same Good (Root of Good) as he exhorts others to follow ” (Bo. Bhū., fol. 89a, line 7, sections 2, 3). In this way, the people believe that he teaches them for their spiritual benefit, as he is consistent in word and deed (Bo. Bhū., fol. 89b, line 2, section 2). They cannot reproach him with such words as these : “ Thou dost not do well : why dost thou think that others should be exceedingly taught and exhorted by thee ? Thou thyself needest admonition and instruction ” (fol. 89b, 3.3). Thus the bodhisattva has the same Ideal or Aim as others have, and he thereby shows his samān-ārthatā. The Bo. Bhū. is accepted as an authority by L. de la Vallée Poussin, but this interpretation seems to be far-fetched and unconvincing. The author of this treatise lived as late as the fourth century A.D., and he appears to have lost touch with the old tradition.

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Another Sanskrit writer explains samān-ārthatā in this way : “ Samān-ārthatā : the pursuit by himself of that (aim) to which he incites others . . . It makes (people) follow. When the others know that the preacher acts as he speaks, they follow the Good (Ideal), for which he has persuaded them to exert themselves ” (M. S. Al., p. 116, lines 8, 14, 15). The author of this prose commentary (Vasubandhu) thus seems to offer the same interpretation as the Bodhisattva-bhūmi. Both belong to the fourth century.

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There was an older tradition with regard to this term, as we learn from the *Mtu.* and the *Saund. Kā.* The *Mtu.* gives the fourth *vastu* as *samāna-sukha-duḥkhatā*, at i, 3, 12 (and not as *samān-ārthatā* at all). Aṣvaghoṣa speaks of *artha-caryā* and *sāmānyam sukha-duḥkhayoḥ* (Saund. Ka., xi, 17). It is clear that this interpretation is quite different from that of the fourth-century theologians. It harmonises more with the real import of the other three *saṅgraha-vastus*, which refer to personal altruism evinced in the ordinary course of social life. There is a sudden and illogical transition in the plane of thought, if we accept the authority of the *Bodhisattva-bhūmi*. It is preferable to follow the *Mtu.* and translate, “sharing the joys and sorrows of others”; or, “the quality of being the same in one’s relation to others in joy and sorrow.”

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It may also be suggested that we have here most probably to deal with a wrongly Sanskritised form. The Pāli word is *samānattatā*, which means, “the quality of being of an even mind” (Pāli. Dicy.). Now the correct Sanskrit form would be *samān-ātmatā* (and not *samān-ārthatā*). *Artha* in Sanskrit usually corresponds to *attha* in Pāli (and not to Pāli *atta*). If we adopt this view, the word can be easily explained in the sense suggested by the *Mtu.* : “The quality of having an even mind (in joy and sorrow)” ; or, “the quality of having a common mind with others, i.e. sharing their feelings and experiences, and remaining the same in joy and grief.” The Tibetan equivalent is *don-ḥthun-pa* (M. Vy., p. 72 ; J. Rahder, “Glossary,” p. 187). S. C. Das gives the form, *don-mthun-pa*, and translates: “*samānārtha* : an assembly having a common interest” (Tib. Dicy., 644). It seems that the Tibetans read *arthatā*, and not *ātmatā*. But their opinion is not decisive.

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This virtue may be described as *anuvartaka* (that which follows after, or conforms). A *bodhisattva*, who practises this *vastu*, cultivates faith, virtue, liberality and wisdom, so that his conduct may be in conformity with his precepts (*Bo. Bhū.*, fol. 47*a*).

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The object of all the *saṅgraha-vastus* is the conversion of the living beings. The Buddhist authors are unanimous on this point.

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“The Equipment of the *saṅgraha-vastus* is for the ripening of the beings” (*Kar. Pu.*, 104.34).

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“He matures or ripens the beings” (*Bo. Bhū.*, fol. 32*a*, 3.1).

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“One should win (or conquer) the beings by means of the *saṅgrahas*” (*Lka.* 346, verse 656).

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“For the proper conversion, training (or discipline) and ripening of the beings” (*Bo. Bhū.*, fol. 47*a*, 4.3).

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“The maturing of the beings (is attained) through the *saṅgraha-vastus*” (*Bo. Bhū.*, fol. 90*a*, 1.2).

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“The four *saṅgraha-vastus* are a door to the light of the Doctrine, which is for the conversion of the beings. In the case of one who has attained the supreme Wisdom, they are for a thorough and detailed examination of the Doctrine (*Lal. V.*, 35.9).

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The four *vastus* are sometimes classified in two groups: material and spiritual (*āmiṣa-saṅgraha, dharma-saṅgraha*). *Dāna* is the *vastu* that depends on material objects; while the other three deal with spiritual values (*M. S. Al.*, 116.22).

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In the course of development of Buddhist thought, the *saṅgraha-vastus*, like the *brahma-vihāras*, acquired a position of greater importance than was accorded to them in the beginning. The Mahāyāna exhibited a marked tendency to emphasise practical altruism. Thus in the fourth century, the four *vastus* are given the high honour of being mentioned together with *prajñā* (*Bo. Bhū.*, fol. 32*a*, 3.1). According to the *Pr. Pā. Aṣṭa.*, they are included in the six *pāramitās*, which may be regarded as the fundamental factors of a *bodhisattva’s* career. They are integral elements in that great virtue, which was subsequently raised to the rank of a *pāramitā*, viz. *upāya-kauśalya*. The author of the *Bo. Bhū.* explicitly declares that the *saṅgraha-vastus* are identical with *upāya* (fol. 46*b*, 5, 2–3). The same writer goes so far as to promise rebirth among the *devas* and even absolute *nirvāṇa* as the reward of the practice of the third *vastu* (*Bo. Bhū.*, 87*b*, 6.3. and 88*a*, 1.1). This is very high praise indeed according to Buddhist ideas. These *saṅgraha-vastus* are spoken of as almost equal in importance to the *pāramitās* in a striking passage of the *Bo. Bhū.*, in which the *pāramitās* are said to be necessary for the personal realisation of the *dharma* of the Buddha, while the *saṅgraha-vastus* are regarded as indispensable for the conversion of others (fol. 90*a*, 1.2).⁵⁹⁴ They are also brought into relation with that supreme virtue, *karuṇā*, in which the *bodhisattva* doctrine culminates. We read in the *Jā. Mā.* that “they are really due to the outflow of the *bodhisattva’s* compassion” (p. 2., line 1). They are also included in the list of a *bodhisattva’s* eighteen *āveṇika-dharmas* (*M. Vy.*, xxix, p. 61). In this way, these altruistic practices are appreciated in an increasing degree, and their final approximation to the *pāramitās* indicates the triumph of the ideal of social service.

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⁵⁹⁴ [Note: The text does not contain a footnote 594 at the bottom of the page.]

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According to the scheme of ten bhūmis, as outlined in the Da. Bhū., a bodhisattva practises dāna in the first bhūmi, priyavāditā in the second bhūmi, artha-caryā in the third bhūmi and samān-arthatā in the fourth bhūmi. Thus these virtues are finally incorporated in the comprehensive synthesis of the Mahāyāna. It is to be understood that a bodhisattva acquires them in the first four bhūmis, and then continues to cultivate them throughout his many lives, as he devotes himself to preaching and teaching in the ninth bhūmi. He has the greatest need of these virtues and practices at that advanced stage of his career.

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2. The Pratisamvids. A bodhisattva must acquire the four pratisamvids. This word has been translated in the following ways:—

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Böhtlingk and Roth: “Genaues Verständnis im Einzelnen.”

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Monier Williams: “An accurate understanding of the particulars of anything” (Skt. Dicy., 621b).

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T. W. Rhys Davids and W. Stede: Literally, “resolving, continuous breaking up”, i.e. “analysis, analytic insight, discriminating knowledge” . . . “the four branches of logical analysis” (Pāli Dicy., s.v. paṭisambhidā).

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P. E. Foucaux: (i) “La connaissance distincte” (Lal V., tr., p. 286). (ii) “La science claire et variée” (Lal. V., tr., p. 37.7). (iii) “La connaissance des détails” (Lal. V., tr., p. 246.5).

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C. A. F. Rhys Davids: “Analysis” (JRAS., 1906, p. 239).

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E. Burnouf: “La connaissance distincte, distributive” (“Lotus”, p. 839).

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S. Lévi: “Les Pleins-savoirs-respectifs” (M. S. Al., tr., p. 234).

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L. Feer: “La connaissance distincte” (Ava. Ça., tr., p. 425).

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F. Max Müller: “Consciousness” (SBE., vol. xlix, Su. Vy., p. 39, line 22).

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S. Lefmann: “Das genaue Verständnis” (Lal. V., tr., p. 55).

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S. Julien: “Les connaissances” (cited SBE., x, Dhammapada, p. 86, note).

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M. Walleser: (i) “Die Unterscheidungen” (Pr. Pā., tr., p. 72, line 35). (ii) “Die Erkenntnisse” (ibid., p. 80).

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E. J. Thomas: “Analysis” (“Buddha”, p. 275).

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P. Oltramare: “Les quatre savoirs parfaits et personnels” (“Bouddhique”, p. 359).

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A. B. Keith: “Powers of comprehension and exegesis” (“Philosophy”, p. 131).

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T. W. Rhys Davids: "The discriminating knowledge of all the Scriptures" (SBE., xi, p. 111, line 4). H. Kern: "Special and distinctive gift," "a transcendent faculty" ("Manual", p. 60). H. C. Warren: "The analytical sciences" ("Buddhism" p. 286).

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The Tibetan equivalent, *so-sor-yaṅ-dag-par-rig-pa*, is a very literal rendering (*M. Vy.*, p. 18; *M. S. Al.*, tr., p. 234, note 1). The Tibetan *so-sor* (distinct, separate: Tib. Dicy., Das, 1283a) corresponds to Skt. *prati*, *yaṅ-dag-par* to Skt. *sam*, and *rig-pa* to Skt. *vid* (Tib. Dicy., Das, 1177b). S. C. Das also gives the form, *so-sor-raṅ-rig-pa*, and translates "accurate understanding" (*Tib. Dicy.*, 1284a). J. Rahder mentions another equivalent, *tha dadpa yaṅ dag par çes pa* ("Glossary", p. 119). In this word, Skt. *prati* is rendered by *tha dad pa* (= distinct, separate: Tib. Dicy., Das, 564b), and Skt. *vid* by Tib. *çes-pa* (= knowledge, wisdom, science: Tib. Dicy., Das, 1243a). It is clear that the Tibetan translators derive the word from Skt. *vid* (to know). S. Lévi thinks that the Chinese equivalent denotes "intelligence sans obstacle" (*M. S. Al.*, tr., p. 234). According to J. Eitel, it means: "unlimited knowledge" (p. 122).

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The fourth-century authors of the *M. S. Al.* and the commentary have also exercised their ingenuity in explaining the term. Their fantastic comment may be given in their own words: "When one has reached *samatā* (equality or sameness) in one's own soul, or by oneself, the preaching, that follows for the destruction of all doubts, is designated *pratisamvid* . . . By this, the explanation and function of the *pratisamvid*s are indicated. By super-normal (transcendental) knowledge, one knows the equality or sameness of all things, and subsequently preaches the Scripture and the Doctrine by means of the knowledge acquired afterwards. This is the explanation of *pratisamvid*." (*M. S. Al.*, 139.12 ff.) But these obscure words do not throw much light on the real etymology of the word.

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It may be argued that *pratisamvid* is a wrongly Sanskritised form. The Pāli word is *paṭisambhidā*, and the correct Sanskrit equivalent should be *pratisambhid*. The Pāli equivalent is derived from the root *bhid*, and not from the root *vid*. The grammatically incorrect forms *pratisamvidāni* and *pratisamvidāḥ* are also met with (*Kar. Pu.*, 103.3; *Mtu.*, iii, 167.3). The first prefix is sometimes omitted, and the simpler form *saṃvid* is found at *Pr. Pā. Ṣata.*, 1471.1. The same word *saṃvid*, with a slightly different connotation, occurs in the *Saund. Kā.* (xi.10-xiii.22). In Kṣemendra’s *Avadāna-kalpa-latā*, the poet uses this word *saṃvid* very frequently (i, 823.17; i, 929, 68.1, 913.7; ii, 331.39; ii, 497.42; ii, 281.47, etc.). The forms *pratisaṃvedī*, *pratisaṃvidita* and *pratisaṃvedayati* occur in the *Lal. V.*, the *Mtu.* and the *Divy.* (*Mtu.* iii, 256.5; *Mtu.* i, 228.7; *Divy.*, 567.18; *Lal. V.*, 369.11). But we need not attach any importance to these different forms, as the term *pratisaṃvid* has a peculiar technical sense.

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The questions may be asked: “Is the Pāli word *paṭisambhidā* itself a rendering of a Sanskrit term? Have the Pāli writers made a mistake in determining the Pāli equivalent of the original Sanskrit word *pratisaṃvid* (from *vid*)? Is the Sanskrit form earlier than the Pāli?” It is a curious fact that the four *paṭisambhidās* are not mentioned in the *Saṅgīti-suttanta* of the *Dīgha-Nikāya*, which gives a long list of different terms; and the *Saṅgīti-suttanta* must belong to a comparatively late period of early Buddhist history, as it is a kind of systematic catechism. The treatise, *Paṭisambhidā-magga*, which is included in the *Khuddaka-Nikāya*, also cannot be regarded as an early product of Buddhist literature. It may be argued with a certain degree of plausibility that the Buddhists borrowed the Sanskrit term *pratisaṃvid* from some Brahmanic source, and the Pāli writers translated it inaccurately into Pāli. The word *saṃvid* occurs in the *Yoga-sūtras* (*citta-saṃvid*—iii, 34, p. 154), and J. H. Woods translates: “consciousness” (p. 262). It is also found in the *Taittirīya Upaniṣad* (*śriyā deyaṃ hriyā deyaṃ bhiyā deyaṃ saṃvidā deyaṃ*. I, 11.3, p. 34). *Pratisaṃvid* is mentioned in connection with *vidyā* and *abhijñā* in the *Avadāna-śataka* (i, 96.8). It should also be noted that *pratisaṃvid* is mentioned as a concomitant of the supreme *bodhi* at *Lal. V.*, 343.4; it suggests the idea of knowledge, and not of analysis. Such texts seem to indicate that the Sanskrit form may be the original one. The term would then connote “knowledge” of some sort (and not “analysis”). It could in that case be translated: “detailed and thorough knowledge.” It must also be admitted that this sense seems to suit the context better than “analysis” in many passages, in which the four *pratisaṃvids* are spoken of. They imply thorough knowledge of something for purposes of propaganda.

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It should be noted that the prefix *prati* has been interpreted in two ways. Most scholars think that it conveys the notion of detail and distinctness; but P. Oltramare, following Vasubandhu, is of opinion that it connotes personal action, “knowing personally, or by oneself.” The former interpretation seems to be more acceptable.595

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A *bodhisattva* needs the four *pratisamvids* for success in his preaching. According to the *M. S. Al.*, they are required in order to remove all the doubts of others (p. 139.16). In the scheme of the ten *bhūmis*, a *bodhisattva* acquires them in the ninth *bhūmi*, when he appears before the world as a preacher. The author of the *Da. Bhū.* distinctly associates the *pratisamvids* with a *bodhisattva's* activity as a teacher. He says: “The *bodhisattva*, who is established in this *bhūmi*, which is called *sādhumati* (Stage of good Thoughts), acts as a preacher of the dharma (doctrine, religion), and guards the treasure of the religion of the *Tathāgata*. Having attained the position (or state) of a preacher of the faith, he teaches the Doctrine with practical skill, combined with infinite (or immeasurable) knowledge, and with the speech of a *bodhisattva*, in which the four *pratisamvids* have been realised. The four *pratisamvids* of a *bodhisattva* constantly and continually abide with him, entire and indivisible.” (*Da. Bhū.*, 76, 24 ff.)

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The *Karuṇā-puṇḍarīka* also declares that a *bodhisattva's* Equipment of the *pratisamvids* (*sambhāraḥ*) serves to destroy the doubts of all creatures (104.28). The *Lal. V.* teaches that the attainment of the *pratisamvids* leads to the acquisition of the *dharma-cakṣus* (the “eye” of the Doctrine, *Lal. V.*, 35.16). They also confer a certain power (*bala*) on a *bodhisattva* (*Lal. V.*, 287.10). When he understands all *dharmas* (principles, truths) and can preach them to others, he reaches the final and perfect stage of Knowledge (*Bo. Bhū.*, fol. 100b, 2.1). “He has nothing more to learn beyond that. It is the *ne plus ultra* of Knowledge,” cries the author of the *Bodhisattva-bhūmi*. The same writer values the *pratisamvids* so highly that he regards them as essential elements of *prajñā*, the highest Wisdom. They appertain to that kind of Wisdom, which removes the hostility of other people and induces them to ask a *bodhisattva* for benefits (*Bo. Bhū.*, fol. 85a, 4, 3 ff). A *bodhisattva* thus acquires the fivefold practical Wisdom relating to the *skandhas*, the physical elements, the sense-organs and their objects, the formula of Dependent Origination and the relation of specific causation (*Bo. Bhū.*, fol. 100b, 1.2–3).

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The *Pr. Pā. Çata.* also exalts the *pratisamvids* to such a degree that it actually includes them among the permanent attributes of a Buddha, and inserts them right in the middle of the traditional formula of ten *balas*, four *vaiçāradyas* and eighteen *āveṇika-dharmas* (*Pr. Pā. Çata.*, p. 131, line 20). This remarkable innovation shows that the Mahāyānists came to attach great importance to these requisites of successful propaganda.

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The four *pratisamvids* are given as *dharma-pratisamvid*, *artha-*, *nirukti-*, and *pratibhāna-* (*M. Vy.*, xiii, p. 18; *Sam. Rā.*, fol. 98*b*. 5, and fol. 193*b*. 1; *Pr. Pā. Çata.*, 1449; *Dh. S.*, li, p. 11; *Da. Bhū.*, 77.4; *Mtu.*, iii, 321.14, etc.). They are as a rule mentioned in this order, but *artha* is put before *dharma* by the authors of the *Sam. Rā.* and the *Pr. Pā. Çata.*, who follow the Pāli tradition in this respect. The third *pratisamvid*, *nirukti*, is omitted at *Bo. Bhū.*, fol. 38*a*, 2.2, though the same treatise discusses all the four at fol. 100*a*. It appears that *dharma* and *artha* existed as a pair of terms before the complete formula was devised, and then *artha* was always placed first. They are often mentioned together (e.g. *artha-vādi dharma-vādi*. *Da. Bhū.*, 24. 19. *Cf. Dhammapada*, 363). *Nirukti* is mentioned without *pratibhāna* at *Su. Vy.*, 59.8; but these two terms were also employed together before they were added on to *dharma* and *artha* as the third and fourth *pratisamvids*. Thus only *nirukti* and *pratibhāna* are mentioned in a passage of the *Pr. Pā. Çata.* (1470.20 ff.). We may conclude that the formula consists of two pairs of terms put together.

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(a) *Dharma-pratisamvid*. According to the *M. S. Al.*, this *pratisamvid* consists in knowing all the names and mutually convertible terms, which are related to each meaning. The *Bo. Bhū.* offers a very concise and formal definition. It may be rendered as follows:—

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“*Dharma-pratisamvid* is the reflective, absolute and irrevocable knowledge of all phenomena in all their forms with regard to the extent and manner of their existence.” 596 *Dharma* and *artha* are taught by a *bodhisattva*, and these two items are therefore related to each other. A *bodhisattva* knows the essential nature (*sva-lakṣaṇam*) of all things (or phenomena), their body-of-non-existence (i.e. their unreality), their present classification (or division), and their difference. He knows the skill of unmixed classification in the knowledge of the phenomena. He understands that they remain unshaken and unmoved according to one law

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(or principle). He knows that the various Ways (of the Buddhist faith) meet together in one Way, and he enters into the knowledge of all the spiritual duty and wisdom of a *bodhisattva*. He understands that all the Buddhas are of the same type, and he knows all about them: their speech, their Powers, their Grounds of Self-confidence, their personality, their great compassion, their use of the *pratisamvids*, their turning the wheel of the faith (i.e., preaching the doctrine), and their acquisition of Omniscience.597

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The *Sam. Rā.* appears to connect *dharma-pratisamvid* with the knowledge of protective magical formulae, called *dhāraṇīs*; but this is certainly unsound exegesis (*Sam. Rā.*, fol. 106*b*, 6 ff.).

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(*b*) *Artha-pratisamvid*. This *pratisamvid* is defined in the *Bo. Bhū.* as “the reflective, absolute and irrevocable knowledge of all phenomena in all their characteristics (*lakṣaṇeṣu*) with regard to the extent and manner of their existence.”598 The *M. S. Al.* uses the same word *lakṣaṇa*, and adds, “which name belongs to which meaning.”599 By this *pratisamvid*, a *bodhisattva* knows the division (or classification) of all phenomena in the past and the future, and understands their origin and their disappearance (or, their rise and their end). He knows the differences of meaning. He acquires the practical wisdom relating to the elements or substrata of sensory existence, the sense-organs and their objects, the Truths and the formula of Dependent Origination. He knows the distinctive features of the several *yānas*, and also the divisions and distinctions of the scheme of the ten *bhūmis*. He understands the details and characteristics of various times and objects. He knows separately the inclinations, the ruling principles and the resolves of the eighty-four thousand different types of beings, and he understands the word of the Buddha.600

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It is to be noted that the later Mahāyānist writers transpose the places of *artha* and *dharma* in the formula of the *pratisamvids*. Thus the *Sam. Rā.* and the *Pr. Pā. Ṣata.* follow the Pāli tradition in putting *artha* as the first *pratisamvid*; but the *Da. Bhū.*, the *M. Vy.*, the *Dh. S.* and the *M. S. Al.* agree in placing *dharma* first. One can only speculate as to the cause of this alteration. Perhaps the later writers attached more importance to the substance and spirit of the *dharma* than to the letter of the Scriptures. The abstract *dharma* was more and more spiritualised and universalised, while the Scriptures remained concrete and material. We know that Bodhidharma and his school held such views. Thus dharma was exalted and artha was given the second place.601

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(c) Nirukti-pratisamvid. The M. S. Al. defines this pratisamvid as the knowledge of the different languages that are spoken in different countries.602 The Bo. Bhū. here does not employ the same term as the M. S. Al. (vākye), but prefers nir-vacaneṣu. It explains thus: “Nirukti-pratisamvid is the reflective, absolute and irrevocable knowledge of all phenomena in all their etymological or linguistic explanations with regard to the extent and manner of their existence.”603 By this pratisamvid, a bodhisattva knows how to preach the pure (unmixed) Doctrine. He teaches the Doctrine without confounding and confusing the past, present and future. He preaches according to the letter, and does not mix up relative truth and the realisation of true knowledge. He speaks with a pleasant voice, which is accessible to the whole world; and he also teaches by writing without uttering a sound. He gives instruction in all the yānas without making any distinction among them, and he teaches about the Stages of Perfection, the Way and Concentration. He teaches according to the highest Truth and with proper regard to the divisions. He speaks after the manner of the Buddha’s word, and imparts the pure teaching with regard to the duties of all living beings.604 He also acquires the knowledge of the speech of such non-human beings as devas, nāgas, yakṣas, gandharvas, asuras, garuḍas, kinnaras and mahoragas.605

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(d) Pratibhāna-pratisamvid. This word occurs in two forms: pratibhāna and pratibhāṇa. It is difficult to determine the precise meaning of the word pratibhāna. Modern scholars have suggested these renderings:—

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S. Lévi: “Présence d’esprit” (M. S. Al., tr., pp. 12 and 234). “Il indique à la fois la rapidité de l’esprit et la facilité.”

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P. Oltramare: “Intuition” (“Bouddhique”, p. 359).

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H. Kern: “Readiness in expounding and discussing” (“Manual”, p. 60).

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S. Julien: “l’Intelligence” (SBE., vol. x, Dhammapada, p. 86, note).

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L. de la Vallée Poussin: “Clairvoyance” (of Avalokiteçvara). (ERE ii, 259.)

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C. Bendall and W. H. D. Rouse: “Word, utterance” (Çik. tr., p. 17).

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Böhtlingk and Roth: “Einsicht” (Skt. Dicy. Pbg.).

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Monier Williams : " Light, splendour, brilliancy ; intelligence, understanding, brilliance of conception ; confidence, boldness, audacity " (Skt. Dicy., 617c).

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T. W. Rhys Davids and W. Stede : " Understanding, illumination, intelligence ; readiness or confidence of speech ; promptitude, wit " (s.v. paṭibhāna, Pāli Dicy.).

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J. S. Speyer : " Power of expounding " (Ava. Ça., ii, 81, note 1).

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E. Burnouf : " Notre mot 'sagesse' serait une meilleure traduction de 'paṭibhāna' que celui d' 'intelligence'. En résumé, la définition de la quatrième connaissance distincte doit revenir à ceci ; la connaissance distincte des trois vérités que sait pénétrer la sagesse " ("Lotus", p. 841).

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The Tibetan equivalent is spobs-pa (J. Rahder, "Glossary," p. 117; M. Vy., p. 18). It means : " self-reliance and wisdom ; courage, self-confidence ; fitness, propriety " (Tib. Dicy., Das, 802b). As a verb, it signifies " to dare, to venture ". The Tibetan word spobs-pa-can means " daring, bold " (= Skt. vicāraḍa). According to J. Eitel, the Chinese equivalent of Sanskrit pratibhāna means " pleasant discourses " (Eitel, 122b). The Sanskrit verb prati-bhā (Pāli : paṭibhā) means : " to appear, to be evident, to come into one's mind, to be clear, to shine." A comparison of several passages of Buddhist Sanskrit literature seems to show that pratibhāna refers to courage and boldness in speech rather than to intelligence and understanding (e.g. Lal. V., 35.19 ; Mtu., i, 119.16 ; Da. Bhū., 4.2 ; Kar. Pu., 101.23, 103.18 ; Su. Vy., 4.4 ; Ava. Ça., i, 48.10 ; Mtu., ii, 290.18).

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As the third pratisamvid, nirukti, is useful for the purpose of effective preaching, it may be surmised that pratibhāna also denotes some quality or advantage relating to speech. If it is interpreted as " intelligence ", it seems to be rather out of place as the last pratisamvid. It is therefore advisable to accept the meaning suggested by the Tibetan equivalent and translate : " courage or boldness in speech, ready address."

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According to the M. S. Al., pratibhāna denotes readiness of speech with regard to knowledge.606 The Bo. Bhū. defines it as " the reflective, absolute and irrevocable knowledge of the verbal distinctions of all kinds as applied to all phenomena with regard to the extent and manner of their existence ".607 A bodhisattva acquires the full knowledge of the attributes of ingenuity by means of this pratisamvid.608 In a noteworthy verse, Aṣvaghoṣa compares Buddha's speech to a cow ; the true Doctrine is her milk, and *pratibhāna* is likened to her horns 609 (*Saund. Kā.*, xviii, 11). Here *pratibhāna* is not spoken of as a *pratisamvid*, but its function in propaganda is indicated. Çāntideva mentions four characteristics of *pratibhāna* in a passage, which he quotes from a Mahāyāna *sūtra* (*Çikṣā*, 15.17 ff.). “O Maitreya, *pratibhāna* in this connection is associated with truth, not with falsehood (untruth); it is associated with righteousness, not with unrighteousness; it diminishes (or weakens) sinful desires (or passions), and it does not increase (or intensify) them; it shows the advantages and merits of *nirvāṇa* (Release, Liberation, Freedom), and it does not point out the advantages and merits of *saṃsāra* (‘transmigration’, ‘the succession of births and deaths’; literally, ‘faring-on’).” The writer here does not refer to *pratibhāna* as a special *pratisamvid*, but he describes its general attributes. The *Lal. V.* declares briefly that *pratibhāna* is a door to the light of the Doctrine and serves to please all creatures by means of excellent utterances. 610

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3 The *Dhāraṇīs*. The *Sad. Pu.* declares that a pious preacher is invulnerable. He is immune to danger and disease. Weapons and poison cannot injure him. 611 But such a *bodhisattva* has also special means of protection in the *dhāraṇīs* (protective spells), which he receives from benevolently disposed *devas* and others. The word *mukha* is sometimes added to *dhāraṇī* on the analogy of the term *samādhi-mukha*. The phrase *dhāraṇī-mantra-padāni* (spell-words of *dhāraṇīs*) is also found. 612

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The idea of using strange or meaningless words as charms for protection against disease and danger goes back to very ancient times. L. A. Waddell thinks that they belonged to the pre-Aryan religion of India. 613 The *Atharva-veda* contains short poems, which may be recited as charms; but it also gives spells consisting of unintelligible sounds and syllables, e.g. “*Nidhāyo vā nidhāyo vā oṃ vā oṃ vā oṃ vā. ē ai oṃ svarṇajyotiḥ.*” 614 The *Aṭānāṭiya-suttanta* of the *Dīgha-Nikāya* contains what are called *parittās* (prayers for safety), and a few others are found in the Pāli canon. 615 But the Sanskrit writers attach great importance to mystical charms and spells, which have lost the character of prayers and invocations. The *bodhisattvas* of Amitābha’s paradise obtain *dhāraṇīs*. 616 *Dhāraṇīs* are even said to confer the *vaiçāradyas* (Grounds of Confidence) on a *bodhisattva*. 617 *Dhāraṇī-pratilabdha* (possessed of *dhāraṇīs*) is a regular epithet of the advanced *bodhisattvas*. 618 They are due to the “Roots of Merit”.619 In the later Mahāyāna, *dhāraṇīs* are mentioned along with such important concepts as *samādhi* and *kṣānti*, and sceptical objectors are severely condemned.620

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The chief object of the *dhāraṇīs* is said to be the protection of the preachers against all enemies, that may do them harm.621 They guard and protect a preacher against the non-human beings like the *devas*, *devīs*, *Māras*, *yakṣas*, demons, hobgoblins and ogres of all species.622 They confer immunity from snake-bite, poison and sickness.623 They also ward off the attacks of thieves and robbers.624

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The *dhāraṇīs* are generally uttered and taught by the *devas* and other super-human beings, who promise to protect the preaching *bodhisattvas*. Even benevolent *rākṣasīs* (female demons) volunteer to help the *bodhisattvas* with these spells. But the increasing importance of these formulae is shown by the circumstance that the Buddha himself is said to have uttered two *dhāraṇīs* in the approved style.625

c9.s2.128

The *Bo. Bhū.* divides the *dhāraṇīs* into four classes : the *dhāraṇīs* of *dharma* (the Doctrine), of *artha* (Meaning), of magic spells (*mantra*), and the *dhāraṇī* for the acquisition of *kṣānti* (Forbearance, or, Acquiescence in the Truth : fol. 105*a*, 3). The *Dh. S.* also speaks of four *dhāraṇīs*, two of which are included in the list of the *Bo. Bhū.* (*dharma-dhāraṇī* and *mantra-dhāraṇī*); and the others are *ātma-dhāraṇī* (the *dhāraṇī* for one-self, or for the body) and *grantha-dhāraṇī* (the *dhāraṇī* for the Scriptures or books).626 The *M. Vy.* mentions twelve *dhāraṇīs*, which are supposed to appertain to a *bodhisattva*.627 They are named *abhiṣecanī* (consecrating), *jñānavatī* (possessing knowledge), *ananta-varṇā* (of infinite praise), *asaṅga-mukha-praveṣā* (entry into the realm of the Unconditioned), etc. etc.

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