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Aspects of Mahayana Buddhism and its Relation to Hinayana c9.s8: Mahāyānic Ordination

Aspects of Mahāyāna Buddhism and its Relation to Hīnayāna c9.s8

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Mahāyānic Ordination

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The Kriyāsaṅgrahapañjikā¹, though a later work, furnishes us with an account of the procedure of ordination that prevailed among the Mahāyānists. It follows the procedure of the Hinayānists so closely that it seems that the ceremony of ordination remained almost the same among both the Hinayānists and the Mahāyānists. It runs as follows:—

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¹ A.S.B. ms., leaf 160a; see H. P. Śāstrī's Cata. of Sans. Mss., vol. 1, pp. 123-6.

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The Pravrajyā and Upasampadā are to be effected by an Ācārya and Upādhyāya. If any body seeks pravrajyā, he should be first asked about the restrictions (antarāyikān dharmān)² and then he is to take triśaraṇa, five śikṣāpadas, and the upāsakasaṃvaras (the disciplines that a layman can undertake, viz., the 8 śīlas) by uttering thrice the usual Hinayāna formulæ. Then for ordination he formally entreats the Ācārya and Upādhyāya who consent to ordain him. His head is shaved and he is told that he is now different from a gṛhī, and is asked whether he is willing to continue to be so. On his answering in the affirmative, he is bathed in the waters of the four oceans³ and clad in yellow robes, and is asked to utter thrice that he, so-and-so, gives up for his whole life the dress of a householder and adopts that of a monk.

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² I.e. some diseases, permission of parents, etc. See Pāli Kammavācam.

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³ Evidently a Tāntric addition.

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He is now given a new name according to the nikāya (school) and with this name he again takes triśaraṇa and the ten śikṣāpadas. He holds a bowl and a robe (pātra-cīvara) and then entreats the Saṅgha to permit him to seek so-and-so as Ācārya and so-and-so as Upādhyāya, and promises to make proper use of the bowl and the robe by uttering mantras. The wordings of the *Pañjikā* are slightly different from those of the *Kammavācam* but the form and order of procedure are the same.

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DISCIPLINARY RULES COMPILED FROM THE *Śikṣāsamuccaya*:

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As the object of the *Śikṣāsamuccaya* is a general treatment of the duties of a Bodhisattva, it does not present us with a systematic disciplinary code for the monks, but in some places it gives a few rules, which must have been taken from a code followed by the Mahāyānists. It says that the duties of a bodhisattva towards others or his duties on the occasion of hearing or preaching the dharma or performing the worship of the Tathāgatas¹ are prescribed in the *Bodhisattva-prātimokṣa*.

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¹ *Śikṣā*., p. 55.

(A) Kalyāṇamitra

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(i) Bodhisattvas should have kalyāṇamitras (spiritual advisers). In the Mahāyāna texts, the kalyāṇamitra plays an important rôle. In the *Prajñāpāramitās* it signifies any person, layman, or monk, who teaches the bodhisattvas that things are transitory, and non-existent in the highest sense, advises them to perform the kuśalamūlas (good deeds), and tries to create in them an interest for Sarvajñatā (omniscience) through Mahāyāna, avoiding Hīnayāna. Those who advised the bodhisattvas to study the Aṅgas (scriptures) and to practise the various dhyānas, apramāṇas, ārūpya-samāpattis and so forth, or in other words, the practices of the Hīnayānists, and dissuaded them from practising the pāramitās and studying the sūtrāntas, should be regarded as pāpamitras (evil friends²). It is enjoined upon a bodhisattva never to forsake a kalyāṇamitra even at the cost of his life, because the duties to be followed by him are all explained in the sūtrāntas which can be learnt only from a kalyāṇamitra³. A kalyāṇamitra, according to the *Bodhicaryā-* vatāra¹, is one who is well versed in the bodhisattvasaṃvara (discipline) and thoroughly knows the Mahāyāna. One should reverently attend upon him for the sake of detailed knowledge (parijñāna)². A kalyāṇamitra protects a bodhisattva from falling into evil courses (durgati), doing improper deeds, frequenting pleasure resorts and so forth. He also brings him out of the worldly life³. The bodhisattvas in their turn should approach the kalyāṇamitra with a firm and tranquil mind, ready to obey him and carry out his wishes, however difficult they may be, just as a dutiful son would do to his father and a patient to his physician, taking his instructions as medicines, and the consequent attainments as the cure of diseases⁴. The Śikṣāsamuccaya also quotes many texts about the duties of a kalyāṇamitra and his disciple⁵. According to it, a person, who teaches even a gāthā of four pādas, is a kalyāṇamitra⁶; hence a dharmabhāṇaka is a kalyāṇamitra. Thus we see that a kalyāṇamitra is a very wide term and includes both Ācārya and Upādhyāya. Though we do not come across the actual rules observed by the kalyāṇamitra and his antevāsika (disciple) as we get in the Vinaya of the Hinayānists, we may infer from the above description of the duties of a kalyāṇamitra and his disciple that the texts have in view the Hinayānic rules of conduct. The term is also found in use in the later Pāli texts. In the Visuddhimagga, Buddhaghosa uses it in the sense of both Ācariya and Upajjhāya, and even calls Buddha a sabbākārasampanno kalyāṇamitta, (a perfect friend or spiritual adviser⁷). He also points out that kalyāṇamitta is a kammaṭṭhanadāyaka (prescriber of the basis of meditation), which is really the function of an Ācariya.⁸

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² *Śata*., pp. 937-1041, 1185, 1190; *Pañca*. (ASB. Ms.), leaf 216a.

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³ *Śikṣā*., p. 41.

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¹ Bodhic., p. 157.

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² Bodhic., p. 157.

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³ Ibid., p. 157; Śikṣā., p. 35: niṣkāsayitāraḥ saṃsārapurāt. This is similar to the function of an Ācariya.

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⁴ Bodhic., p. 158.

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⁵ See e.g. Śikṣā., pp. 34-6.

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⁶ Ibid., p. 37.

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⁷ Vis. M., pp. 121, 98; also pp. 89, 98, 99. Kalyāṇamitta is used in a general sense in the Maṅgalasutta and the Saṃyutta, I, p. 88.

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⁸ For the duties of the Ācariya and the Upajjhāya, see Cv., VIII, 12-14.

(B) Vaiyāvṛtya-Bhikṣu

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(ii) The functions of a Vaiyāvṛtya bhikṣu (i.e., a monk who has taken upon himself the responsibility of serving the Saṅgha) correspond to those of the Senāsanapaññāpaka (arranger of seats, beds, etc.) and Bhattudesaka (distributor of food) of the *Suttavibhaṅga*¹. The account of the functions of the Senāsanapaññāpaka and Bhattudesaka is confined to matters relating to the distribution of seats, beds and articles of food to the monks. The quotation in the *Śikṣāsamuccaya* touches on many topics and is interesting from the view-point of the functions of the secretary of a religious organization. It says that the primary aim of a Vaiyāvṛtya bhikṣu should be to win the approval of the Saṅgha. He should do every act, however small it may be, with the consent of the Saṅgha. He must see to the needs of monks, who are āraṇyakas (leading a forest life), piṇḍacārikas² (living on alms under some restrictions), yogācārins (meditating)³, bāhuśrutyas (seekers of wide learning), dharmakathikas (preachers of the law) or are suffering from illness. He should keep separate the money or business relating to the saṅgha of a particular locality and that of the saṅghas of the four regions (cāturdiśa) of all times.⁴ He must apply the gifts made specially for a stūpa to the use of the stūpa and not to any other purpose. He must not lose his temper or give improper directions. He must render account of the gifts received by him from faithful devotees at proper time and place.¹ This account is followed by a list of the punishments that will be meted out to him in his future births for the breach, or improper discharge, of his duties.

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¹ *Vinaya*, II, pp. 74-5; III, pp. 158ff.; *Suttavibhaṅga*, VIII: Dabba after attaining arhat-hood wishes “kin nu kho ahaṃ saṃghassa veyyāvaccam kareyyan ti—yam nunāhaṃ saṃghassa senāsanañ ca paññāpeyyam bhattāni ca uddiseyyan ti”.

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² *Cullavagga*, VIII. 5, p. 215: piṇḍacārikā bhikkhū.

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³ These three refer to those monks who are observing one of the dhutaṅga precepts. In the *Vinaya Piṭaka* also, there are rules regarding the service to be rendered to, or by, a monk who is an āraññaka. See *Vinaya Piṭaka*, Indexes, II, p. 343, V, p. 244, sv. Āraññaka. Cf. *Vinaya*, II, pp. 75, 176; Dabba Mallaputta arranged seats and beds according as the monks were bahussutas, dhammakathikas, etc.

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⁴ Cf. Āgatānāgata-cātuddisasaṅgha in *Cullavagga*, VI. 1. 4, 9. 1. In the inscriptions also, gifts are found to be made to a particular saṅgha or the saṅghas of the four regions, see ante, p. 14.

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¹ Śikṣā., pp. 55-6.

(C) Dress

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(iii) A monk ordained in the name of Buddha is to put on yellow robes and shave his head and chin. However immoral or sinful he may be, he is immune from injury, punishment, or reproach from unordained persons including a king, because in some ways at least he renders good to the world of the gods and men ².

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² Ibid., p. 68: The yellow robe should be regarded as a mokṣadhvaja (banner of freedom); see also p. 115.

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The coloured garments, shaven head and the alms bowl are calculated to destroy his pride³. In order to be free from pride, he remembers that he is like a young caṇḍāla, living on alms, receiving what is cast away by others, and that he is to respect his teacher, please his fellow monks by proper conduct, and so forth ⁴.

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³ Ibid., p. 150.

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⁴ Ibid., pp. 150-1.

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(iv) A bhikṣu needs dress for decency as also to protect his body from gnats and such other insects, but he cannot have more than three pieces ⁵. If anybody asks from him the bowl or a robe and if he has not got any to spare, he cannot part with those he has, for they are necessary for him for leading the life of a brahmacārin ⁶. The yellow robe of a monk is the sign of a śramaṇa and an object of worship to the gods, men, and demons. These are to be worn by monks free from all worldly ties, and as aids to the performance of duties leading to salvation⁷.

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⁵ Bodhic., p. 141.

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⁶ Ibid., p. 142: avisarjanīyam hi tricīvaram uktam tathāgatena. Cf. Vinaya, Mv., VIII. 13. 3; Nissaggiya Pāc., 1 ff.

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⁷ Śikṣā., p. 136.

(D) Food

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(v) For self-preservation, a bodhisattva needs dress and food ⁸. He should collect food just as much as he needs.

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⁸ Ibid., p. 127. These two are called Satatabhaiṣajya, and medicines are called glānapratyayabhaiṣajya., Cf. Bodhic., p. 140.

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While going on rounds, he should avoid unseemly places¹. Of the food he collects, he should put aside one portion for his brother monks, two for the poor and the afflicted and keep the fourth for himself. This portion he takes without attachment, greediness, and setting his mind to it². He takes it simply with a view to support and maintain his body so that he may not be emaciated.

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¹ Śikṣā., p. 116.

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² Cf. Mtu., I, p. 139.

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While going on his round, he must not attend to pleasant or unpleasant things. With senses well controlled, seeing not more than a yoke's length in front, he should proceed from one house to another in regular succession³, without being elated if he gets alms, or down-hearted if he is refused. He should visit only ten houses and not more; if even then he fails to get alms, he should not be sorry. On the other hand, he should think that people are busy with their own affairs and it is so much to the good that they merely notice him, even if they do not give him alms. He should have maitrī and karuṇā for all persons he comes across, and wish them good fortune. After collecting alms, he should offer a portion to the poor if he can find any; if not, he should set apart a share for the poor as yet unseen. Then he is to sit crosslegged according to the practice of ascetics, and take his food, wishing that by the food taken by him the 80,000 worms of the body may live and be happy. If he has only very small food, he should think that it will keep his body and mind light and that he would be better fit for exertion⁴. If he receives an abundant dole, he must be moderate in his food and leave the excess upon a rock for birds and beasts.

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³ Cf. Sapadānam (*i.e.* paṭipāṭiyā) piṇḍāya carati.

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⁴ Śikṣā., pp. 128ff; Bodhic., pp. 140ff.

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He must not enjoy the taste of food and so forth. He is to be pure in mind and body, but not in his food, for he should be conscious of the fact that food turns ultimately into filth. He must not mind the kind of food, *i.e.*, whether it is good or bad, or the persons who give it to him, *i.e.*, whether the giver is man or woman, boy or girl. He should give no thought to the fact of being treated with respect or otherwise, served slowly or quickly. In this way, he should avoid all possible evil thoughts (akuśala-manasikāra).

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As a craving for food leads one to hell, a bhikṣu must not have desire for flavour (rasatṛṣṇā) of food and must eat it bearing in mind that he takes food to support his body in order to follow the right path.

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Should rain prevent him from going on his rounds, he should remain without food for two or three days, remembering all the while that there are creatures in Yamaloka and other evil places who do not get food for years, and so he must not have weakness in body and mind but must patiently endure hunger and thirst.

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If any family offers him food, pure according to the Mahāyānic restrictions, he is to take his seat and deliver a discourse on religion; and if the food be not pure he is to rise from his seat and depart. A piṇḍacārika bhikṣu must not make comments on the food received, or indulge in any sort of useless talk. He must be always indifferent to what he gets.

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A bhikṣu may accept an invitation at a woman's place if thereby he can benefit himself or anybody else¹.

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¹ Contrast Pāc. 44-46.

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When begging or eating food, a monk should remember the giver, the worms in the body, and the dharma, which causes the good of all beings².

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² Śikṣā., p. 138.

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These are the various restrictions, which a monk should observe for his satatabhaiṣajya³. But in any case, he cannot eat fish or flesh prohibited in the Laṅkavatāra sūtra⁴ and other sūtras. The Śikṣāsamuccaya quotes many sūtras⁵, where fish and meat-eating are condemned, and refers to the three restrictions (trikoṭipariśuddha) observed by the Hīnayānists⁶.

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³ Ibid., pp. 127-131.

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⁴ See Laṅkā., pp. 244ff.

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⁵ Śikṣā., pp. 131ff.

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⁶ On this topic, see Watters' Yuan Chwang, I, pp. 55f. Vinaya, I, p. 238: tikotiparisuddham macchamamsam adittham asutam aparisankitan ti; Vinaya, II, p. 197: Devadatta's demand that macchamamsam na khādeyya; Śikṣā., p. 135n: tad uddiśya hatam svahatam hanymānam dṛṣṭam; De Groot, *op. cit.*, p. 42. See also Prof. La Vallée Poussin’s remarks in the *Foreword*.

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(vi) In the *Bhikṣuvinaya*, medicines are prescribed for the sick for a yāma (three hours), for a week, or for one’s whole life¹. The Mahāyānic *Vinaya* ordains the use of ghee or oil, juice of roots, or fruits as medicaments for the preservation of the body, which is necessary for the salvation of all beings².

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¹ *Bodhic.*, p. 141.

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² *Śikṣā.*, p. 135; cf. *Vinaya*, *Mahāvagga*, VI ff, for diseases and medicines.

(E) Vācika

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(vii) A bodhisattva should reside in a place suitable for him. He should speak in season, be cognisant of time and place, so that people may not find any occasion to be displeased with his conduct.

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(viii) He should speak gently and not volubly. He should not frequent the societies of laymen, but should be fond of solitude. He should maintain a cheerful countenance³.

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³ *Bodhic.*, p. 132; *Sad. P.*, p. 265.

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(ix) He should not talk aloud⁴.

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⁴ Cf. *Sekhiya*, 13.

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(x) He should not indulge in “despondent, disconnected, frivolous or dramatic talk”⁵. In short, he should not do anything that might displease others, and every action of his should be tempered by mahākaruṇā and the desire of doing good to all beings⁶.

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⁵ *Śikṣā.*, p. 126.

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⁶ *Ibid.*, p. 127: saṅkṣepatas tu paraprasādarakṣā. Cf. *Bodhic.*, p. 149; *Śikṣā.*, p. 117.

(F) Kāyika

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(xi) On land or water meant for use, he should not answer the calls of nature⁷.

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⁷ *Śikṣā.*, p. 125; *Transl.*, p. 124; *Bodhic.*, p. 148; Cf. *Bhikkhupātimokkha*, *Sekhiya*, 73, 74; *Bhikkhuṇivibhaṅga*, *Pāc.* 8, 9.

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(xii) He should not use a toothpick, nor drop phlegm before teachers, as a mark of respect.

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(xiii) He should not at the time of eating fill his mouth, make a noise, or open his mouth wide⁸.

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⁸ Cf. *Sekhiya*, 39, 50, 51.

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(xiv) He should not be unrestrained in hand and foot ¹, “sit with dangling legs ²”, and rub hands.

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¹ Śikṣā., p. 116.

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² Cf. Sekhiya, 15, 16.

(G) Dhutavādins

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(xv) If an abhyavakāśika monk (living in an unsheltered place) falls ill, he should reside in a monastery without having any attachment to the monastery or making it his home, and wishing good to the giver of the monastery.

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(xvi) An āranyaka monk (i.e., living in a forest) in choosing his place of residence should pay heed to the facts (a) that it is not very far from or near to a place wherefrom alms are to be collected, (b) that pure water is easily available for drinking, (c) that there are trees with leaves, flowers, fruits as also caves, cliffs and quiet places, and (d) that there are no wild animals in the locality ³.

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³ Śikṣā., pp. 196-7. This is followed by an account of the mental that an āranyaka bhikṣu should possess.

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(xvii) Should an āranyaka bhikṣu desire to hear the dharma or see his ācārya or upādhyāya or consult physicians about some illness or have śayanāsana in a village, he should come and go only in the evening ⁴.

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⁴ Ibid., p. 200. It is to be noted that the rules relating to the of alms, use of medicines, etc. were the few special rules observed by followers of the dhutaṅga precepts particularly Āranyakas, Piṇḍapātikas, Śmāśānikas, Paścādbhaktikas and Abhyavakāśikas. See Śikṣā., pointed out (Śikṣā., 135, 137; Pañca. (ASB. ms.), leaf 218b, 284 for dhutaṅgas. S. himself from all Groot, op. cit., pp. 69f for some other rules. hisattva.

(H) Atonement

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(xviii) A bhikṣu should atone for his sins in four ways :

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(a) Vidūṣana-samudācāra = repentance and self-reproach by mentally entreating the various Buddhas to forgive him for the sins committed by him ⁵. It includes confession resorted to by Buddhist monks generally;

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⁵ For formulæ, see Bodhic., p. 154.

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(b) Pratipakṣa-samudācāra = performing some good deed which counteract the evils committed by him ;

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(c) Pratyāpattibala = adopting the duty to observe the five and thrice the body for the a; s! s a caṇḍāla ;

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(ii) discourage persons from practising the pāramitās and ask them to take to śrāvakayāna ;

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(iii) dissuade persons from observance of Prātimokṣa rules and advise them to read only the Mahāyāna texts ;

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(iv) disparage Śrāvakayāna and advise persons to give it up, or praise Mahāyāna and ask people to take to it in order to attain bodhi ;

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(v) show disrespect to Śrāvakayāna and Pratyekabuddhayāna ;

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(vi) read, teach or preach Mahāyāna for the sake of gain and honour; speak ill of others or show some supernatural powers with a view to lessen the gain of others and increase his own ;

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(vii) be proud of one’s own learning of Mahāyāna texts and imparting the same to others; or boast of his learning or his compassion to his hearers ;

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(viii) be proud of the gifts received from one’s admirers ;

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(ix) be instrumental in punishing bhikṣus and compelling them to commit offences against the saṅgha ;

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(x) give out false doctrines and thereby taint the morals of the bhikṣus and thus discredit them in the eye of the householders¹ ;

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¹ Śikṣā., pp. 60 ff; Bodhic., pp. 160 ff. It is also pointed out (Śikṣā., p. 64; Bodhic., p. 163) that a bodhisattva can absolve himself from all these sins by simply worshipping Ākāśagarbha Bodhisattva.

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(xi) reproach a gṛhī- or pravrajita-bodhisattva for any āpatti ;

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(xii) show disrespect to a bodhisattva ;

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(xiii) show displeasure at a bodhisattva’s enjoying the five pleasures of the senses ;

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(xiv) cause mental or physical pain to a bodhisattva ;

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(xv) address an unkind word to a bodhisattva ;

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(xvi) fail to honour a bodhisattva thrice in the day and thrice at night ;

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(xvii) fail to give away kingship, wealth or body for the completion of the resolution formed by him ;

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(xviii) hesitate to dwell with a person as low as a caṇḍāla ;

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(xix) praise oneself and disparage others ;

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(xx) stop at a place to avoid quarrels, etc. ;

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(xxi) profess himself as an observer of dhutaṅgas or śīlas, or as one vastly learned; (xxii) give out his good points and conceal the bad¹; (xxiii) fail to examine his own self; (xxiv) wish the company of persons with little learning;
(xxv) be fond of assemblies; (xxvi) fail to reside in solitary places and practise self-control; (xxvii) hanker after gain and honour, frivolous talk, sleep, slumber and so forth; and (xxviii) fail to serve or praise the Tathāgatas.

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¹ For these and such other rules, see Śikṣā., pp. 98, 104, 105, 148, 309, 274.

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These rules are more like pious advice than a code of discipline meant for the bodhisattvas. They lack a system and have in view only the ideal life, which a Bodhisattva should lead.

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